Biology: Osmosis and Osmotic Regulation
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What is the primary function of osmosis in living organisms?

  • To facilitate the movement of water molecules across cell membranes (correct)
  • To generate energy
  • To maintain cellular shape
  • To regulate temperature

    • Which type of solution would cause a cell to shrink due to water loss?

  • Isotonic solution
  • Hypotonic solution
  • Hypertonic solution (correct)
  • Osmotic solution

    • What is the primary adaptation of osmoregulators to maintain homeostasis?

  • Passive regulation of solute concentration
  • Production of anti-diuretic hormone
  • Active regulation of solute concentration (correct)
  • Maintenance of equal solute concentration with the environment

    • What is the primary mechanism by which fish in freshwater environments conserve water?

    <p>Absorbing salt ions through active transport in the gills</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary source of water for desert animals?

    <p>Metabolic water produced during cellular respiration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of hydrobiosis in certain organisms?

    <p>To conserve water during periods of drought</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of solution is ideal for maintaining cellular homeostasis in animal cells?

    <p>Isotonic solution</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which fish in seawater environments conserve water?

    <p>Excreting excess salt through concentrated urine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of excretion in animals?

    <p>Maintenance of homeostasis and prevention of toxicity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following nitrogenous wastes is non-toxic and can be stored until excretion?

    <p>Uric acid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the process by which the body reclaims water and ions from the filtrate?

    <p>Reabsorption</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of excretory system is found in annelids?

    <p>Metanephridia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most sophisticated excretory system?

    <p>Vertebrate kidney</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the functional unit of the kidney?

    <p>Nephron</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a type of excretory system?

    <p>Liver</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which mammals convert amino groups?

    <p>To urea</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the nephron is responsible for the reabsorption of water, glucose, amino acids, and ions?

    <p>Proximal convoluted tubule</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the efferent arteriole in the nephron?

    <p>To carry blood away from the glomerulus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the nephron is responsible for the final reabsorption of water and concentration or dilution of urine?

    <p>Collecting duct</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the process by which the nephron separates smaller substances in plasma from larger substances?

    <p>Glomerular filtration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the structure that forms the renal corpuscle with the glomerulus?

    <p>Bowman's capsule</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the movement of substances from the tubules into peritubular capillaries?

    <p>Tubular reabsorption</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the nephron is responsible for further reabsorption of water and ions?

    <p>Loop of Henle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the movement of substances from peritubular capillaries into the tubules?

    <p>Tubular secretion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary adaptation of marine fish to conserve water?

    <p>Excreting salt through gills by active transport</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of nitrogenous waste is mainly excreted by insects, land snails, and many reptiles, including birds?

    <p>Uric acid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of transport epithelia in animals?

    <p>To regulate the solute content of body fluid that bathes their cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of water conservation in freshwater fish?

    <p>Producing a diluted urine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the adaptation that allows some aquatic invertebrates to survive in a dormant state with almost no body water?

    <p>Anhydrobiosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of water conservation in terrestrial animals?

    <p>Replacing water through food, drinking, and metabolic water</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of nitrogenous waste removal in aquatic organisms?

    <p>Excreting ammonia across the whole body surface or through gills</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of nasal glands in marine birds?

    <p>To remove excess sodium chloride from the blood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the vertebrate kidney in regards to water regulation?

    <p>To reabsorb water and ions from the filtrate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following excretory systems is characterized by a network of tubules that open into the coelom?

    <p>Nephridia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary form of nitrogenous waste produced by animals that live in aquatic environments?

    <p>Ammonia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following invertebrate excretory systems is characterized by a series of flame cells that help to remove waste products?

    <p>Protonephridia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the excretory system in animals?

    <p>To remove waste products from the body</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following forms of nitrogenous waste is the least toxic to animals?

    <p>Urea</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the renal corpuscle in the vertebrate kidney?

    <p>To filter waste products from the blood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following types of excretory systems is characterized by a pair of tubules that open into the cloaca?

    <p>Malpighian tubules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the flame cell in protonephridia?

    <p>To collect body fluids through collecting tubules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the nephrostome in metanephridia?

    <p>To enter fluid into the nephron</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following excretory systems is characterized by the production of a protein-free ultrafiltrate?

    <p>Antennal glands</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the proximal convoluted tubule in the nephron?

    <p>To reabsorb 60% of the filtrate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following excretory systems operates in conjunction with the rectum to secrete insoluble uric acid?

    <p>Malpighian tubules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the glomerulus in the nephron?

    <p>To produce a protein-free filtrate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following excretory systems is characterized by the presence of a network of blood vessels surrounding the nephron?

    <p>Metanephridia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the descending limb of the loop of Henle in the nephron?

    <p>To allow water to permeate and NaCl to be impermeable</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Osmosis and Osmotic Regulation

    • Osmosis: movement of water molecules from regions of higher water concentration to regions of lower water concentration
    • Osmosis is a passive process, does not require energy

    Types of Solutions

    • Hypotonic solution: lower solute concentration, greater water concentration
    • Hypertonic solution: higher solute concentration, lower water concentration
    • Isotonic solution: equal solute and water concentration, ideal for animal cells

    Effects of Solutions on Cells

    • Hypotonic solution: water moves into the cell, cell volume increases, may lead to cell lysis
    • Hypertonic solution: water moves out of the cell, cell volume decreases, may lead to cell death
    • Isotonic solution: dynamic equilibrium, no net movement of water into or out of the cell

    Osmotic Regulation in Animals

    • Osmotic conformers: maintain equal solute concentration inside the body as the surrounding environment
    • Osmoregulators: actively regulate solute concentration in the body to maintain homeostasis

    Marine Invertebrates

    • Osmotic conformers, maintain equal solute concentration inside the body as the surrounding seawater
    • Examples: spider crab, shore crab
    • Shore crab: can tolerate a wider range of salinities, has a greater tolerance for changes in salt concentration

    Fish in Seawater

    • Live in a hypertonic environment, lose water through osmosis
    • Drink water to replenish lost water, but also gain salt
    • Excrete excess salt through concentrated urine and active transport
    • Produce a small amount of concentrated urine to conserve water

    Fish in Freshwater

    • Live in a hypotonic environment, gain water through osmosis
    • Produce a large amount of dilute urine to eliminate excess water
    • Avoid drinking water, absorb salt ions through active transport in the gills
    • Maintain a hypertonic body through hyperosmotic regulation

    Terrestrial Animals

    • Live in an atmosphere with low water concentration, constantly losing water through evaporation
    • Gain water through drinking, eating, and metabolic water
    • Metabolic water: water produced during cellular respiration, contributes to water supply
    • Example: desert animals, gain water mainly through metabolic water (90%)

    Desert Animals

    • Gain water mainly through metabolic water (90%)
    • Eat foods high in fat to obtain metabolic water
    • Minimize water loss through urine and feces

    Tardigrades and Hydrobiosis

    • Can survive in a dormant state, encased in a cyst, to conserve water
    • Examples: tardigrades, certain frogs and toads in desert environments

    Osmosis and Osmotic Regulation

    • Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from higher to lower concentration, a passive process requiring no energy.

    Types of Solutions

    • Hypotonic solutions have lower solute and higher water concentrations.
    • Hypertonic solutions have higher solute and lower water concentrations.
    • Isotonic solutions have equal solute and water concentrations, ideal for animal cells.

    Effects of Solutions on Cells

    • Hypotonic solutions cause water to enter the cell, increasing volume, potentially leading to lysis.
    • Hypertonic solutions cause water to leave the cell, decreasing volume, potentially leading to cell death.
    • Isotonic solutions maintain dynamic equilibrium, with no net water movement.

    Osmotic Regulation in Animals

    • Osmotic conformers maintain equal solute concentration inside and outside the body.
    • Osmoregulators actively regulate solute concentration to maintain homeostasis.

    Marine Invertebrates

    • Osmotic conformers, maintaining equal solute concentration with seawater.
    • Examples: spider crab, shore crab.
    • Shore crab has a wider salinity tolerance and greater salt concentration adaptability.

    Fish in Seawater

    • Live in a hypertonic environment, losing water through osmosis.
    • Drink water to replenish lost water, gaining salt.
    • Excrete excess salt through concentrated urine and active transport.

    Fish in Freshwater

    • Live in a hypotonic environment, gaining water through osmosis.
    • Produce a large amount of dilute urine to eliminate excess water.
    • Avoid drinking water, absorbing salt ions through active transport in gills.
    • Maintain a hypertonic body through hyperosmotic regulation.

    Terrestrial Animals

    • Live in a low-water-concentration atmosphere, constantly losing water through evaporation.
    • Gain water through drinking, eating, and metabolic water.
    • Metabolic water is produced during cellular respiration, contributing to the water supply.
    • Desert animals gain water mainly through metabolic water (90%).

    Desert Animals

    • Gain water mainly through metabolic water (90%).
    • Eat high-fat foods to obtain metabolic water.
    • Minimize water loss through urine and feces.

    Tardigrades and Hydrobiosis

    • Can survive in a dormant, encased state, conserving water.
    • Examples: tardigrades, certain frogs and toads in desert environments.

    Excretion

    • Excretion is the process of removing waste products from the body to maintain homeostasis and prevent toxicity.

    Nitrogenous Waste Removal

    • Nitrogenous wastes are a byproduct of protein metabolism and must be removed from the body to prevent toxicity.
    • Different mechanisms are used to remove nitrogenous wastes in animals, depending on the species:
      • Ammonia (NH3) is converted and excreted through gills or skin in fish and some invertebrates.
      • Ammonia is converted to urea in mammals, which is less toxic but requires energy to produce.
      • Ammonia is converted to uric acid in birds, reptiles, and land snails, which is non-toxic and can be stored until excretion.

    Excretory Systems

    • Most excretory systems produce a filtrate that is formed in special organs that collect excess water, salts, and nitrogenous wastes.
    • The filtrate undergoes reabsorption, where the animal reclaims water and ions, and secretion, where additional materials are added to the filtrate.
    • Excretion is the final step, where the waste products are removed from the body.

    Types of Excretory Systems

    • Protonephridia: found in flatworms, uses flame cells to collect waste and push it out of the body.
    • Metanephridia: found in annelids, has a more complex structure with capillaries that allow for reabsorption and secretion.
    • Antennal gland (Greenland): found in crustaceans, functions as a kidney, collecting waste and ions from the hemolymph.
    • Malpighian tubules: found in insects and spiders, allows for selective absorption of salt, water, and nitrogenous wastes.
    • Vertebrate kidney: the most sophisticated excretory system, with four functions: filtration, reabsorption, secretion, and excretion.

    Vertebrate Kidney

    • The functional unit of the kidney is the nephron.
    • The nephron consists of an afferent arteriole, efferent arteriole, Bowman's capsule, and glomerulus.
    • The glomerulus has a high pressure, forcing liquids to exit through permeable capillaries.
    • The filtrate then passes through the proximal convoluted tubule, descending and ascending branches of Henle's loop, and the distal convoluted tubule, where different functions occur along the way.

    Nephron and Urinary System

    • The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney responsible for forming urine.
    • The urinary system is closely associated with the cardiovascular system.

    Cardiovascular System Structures Associated with the Nephron

    • Arterioles are tiny branches off of the renal artery.
    • Afferent arteriole is a branch of the arteriole that leads into the glomerulus.
    • Efferent arteriole is the artery that exits the glomerulus.
    • Peritubular capillaries surround the tubes of the nephron and merge to form the renal vein.

    Parts of the Nephron

    • Bowman's capsule is a C-shaped structure that forms the renal corpuscle with the glomerulus.
    • Proximal convoluted tubule is the next part of the nephron after Bowman's capsule.
    • Loop of Henle is a U-shaped structure consisting of the descending limb and ascending limb.
    • Distal convoluted tubules are after the loop of Henle.
    • Collecting duct is where urine is produced and transported to the urinary bladder.

    Processes of Urine Formation

    • Glomerular filtration is the separation of smaller substances in plasma from larger substances.
    • Tubular reabsorption is the movement of substances from the tubules into peritubular capillaries.
    • Tubular secretion is the movement of substances from peritubular capillaries into the tubules.

    Glomerular Filtration

    • Glomerular filtration occurs at the renal corpuscle, where smaller substances diffuse across the membrane of Bowman's capsule.

    Urine Formation Processes in the Nephron

    • Proximal convoluted tubule: reabsorption of water, glucose, amino acids, and ions.
    • Loop of Henle: further reabsorption of water and ions.
    • Distal convoluted tubules: reabsorption of sodium, chloride, and other substances.
    • Collecting duct: final reabsorption of water and concentration or dilution of urine.

    Urinary Bladder and Micturition

    • Urinary bladder is composed of transitional epithelium and smooth muscle.
    • Stretch receptors in the bladder wall stimulate contraction of smooth muscles and relaxation of the urinary sphincter, leading to micturition (urination).
    • Internal sphincter is composed of smooth muscle, under involuntary control.
    • External sphincter is composed of skeletal muscle, under voluntary control.

    Osmotic Regulation

    • Osmosis is the movement of water molecules across a cell membrane from areas of high water concentration to areas of low water concentration.
    • The environment in which animals live can be described as:
      • Hypertonic: Higher solute and lower water concentration.
      • Hypotonic: Lower solute and higher water concentration.
      • Isotonic: Equal water and solute concentration, which is the ideal environment for most animal cells.

    Osmoregulation in Marine Invertebrates

    • Osmotic conformers maintain an equal solute concentration to sea water, with limited osmotic regulation.
    • Stenohaline species (e.g. spider crab) tolerate little changes in salinity.
    • Euryhaline species (e.g. shore crab) tolerate a wider range of salinity.

    Osmoregulation in Fish

    • Marine fish live in a hypertonic environment and must deal with constant water loss and salt uptake by hypoosmotic regulation.

      • They do this by:
        • Drinking water
        • Producing a concentrated urine
        • Excreting salt through gills by active transport

    • Freshwater fish live in a hypotonic environment and must deal with constant salt and minerals loss and water uptake by hyperosmotic regulation.

      • They do this by:
        • Drinking limited water
        • Producing a diluted urine

    Osmoregulation in Temporary Pools

    • Some aquatic invertebrates in temporary ponds lose almost all their body water and survive in a dormant state, known as anhydrobiosis.
      • Example: Tardigrades

    Osmoregulation in Terrestrial Animals

    • Terrestrial animals lose water by evaporation from breathing and body surfaces, excretion in urine and feces, and replace it by water in food, drinking, and metabolic water.

    Transport Epithelia

    • Animals regulate the solute content of body fluid that bathes their cells.
    • Transport epithelia are specialized for moving solutes in specific directions.
    • They are typically arranged in complex tubular networks.
    • Example: Nasal glands of marine birds, which remove excess sodium chloride from the blood.

    Excretory Systems

    • Nitrogenous Wastes:

      • Aquatic organisms release ammonia across the whole body surface or through gills.
      • Mammals and most adult amphibians convert ammonia to urea in the liver, and the circulatory system carries it to the kidneys.
      • Insects, land snails, and many reptiles, including birds, mainly excrete uric acid.

    • Excretory System Functions:

      • Filtration: Filtering of body fluids.
      • Reabsorption: Reclaiming valuable solutes.
      • Secretion: Adding nonessential solutes and wastes from the body fluids to the filtrate.
      • Excretion: Processed filtrate containing nitrogenous wastes, released from the body.

    • Protonephridia in acoelomates (flatworms) and pseudocoelomates (nematodes and rotifers):

      • Collects body fluids through collecting tubules and the action of a flame cell.
      • Wastes are expelled through an excretory pore.

    • Metanephridia in annelids:

      • More sophisticated system than protonephridia.
      • Having two openings and being surrounded by a network of blood vessels.
      • Fluid enters the ciliated nephrostome, and waste is released through the nephridiopore.

    • Antennal glands (green glands) in insects:

      • Take a protein-free ultrafiltrate from the blood.
      • Reabsorb salts prior to excretion.

    • Malpighian tubules in insects and spiders:

      • Operate in conjunction with the rectum to secrete insoluble uric acid.
      • Muscle contractions force fluid into the tubules.

    • Vertebrate kidneys:

      • The functional unit of the kidney is the nephron.
      • Has three physiological functions: filtration, re-absorption, secretion, and excretion.

    • Nephron Function:

      • The glomerulus produces a protein-free filtrate.
      • The proximal convoluted tubule reabsorbs 60% of filtrate (H2O, glucose, amino acids, and vitamins).
      • The descending limb of loop of Henle is permeable to water and impermeable to NaCl.

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