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Questions and Answers
The space between cells in vertebrates is filled with ______ fluid.
interstitial
Anatomy is the study of biological ______ of an organism.
form
The body plan of an animal is programmed by the ______, which is the product of millions of years of evolution.
genome
Most animals are composed of ______ cells that are organized into tissues.
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Physical laws govern ______, diffusion, movement, and heat exchange.
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Some organs, such as the ______, belong to more than one system.
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As animals increase in ______, thicker skeletons are required for support.
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The rate of exchange of nutrients, waste products, and gases should be proportional to a cell's ______ area.
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Epithelial tissue covers the outside of the body and lines the ______ and cavities within the body.
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Bone cells are called ______.
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The polarity of epithelia means that epithelial cells have ______________ surfaces.
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Connective tissue contains cells, including fibroblasts, which ______________ the protein of extracellular fibers.
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The ______________ system transmits chemical signals called hormones to receptive cells throughout the body.
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Homeotherms, such as mammals and birds, maintain a relatively ______________ body temperature.
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Bats drop from 40°C to ______________ degrees above zero when they enter hibernation.
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Some ectotherms produce 'antifreeze' compounds to prevent ______________ formation in their cells.
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Countercurrent exchange in marine mammals and birds allows for the transfer of heat between fluids flowing in ______________ directions.
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Thermogenesis is the adjustment of ______________ heat production to maintain body temperature.
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The basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the metabolic rate of an ______________ at rest at a 'comfortable' temperature.
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Metabolic rate is proportional to body mass to the power of ______________ (m 3/4).
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Study Notes
Interstitial Fluid and Body Organization
- In flat animals (e.g., tapeworms), most cells are in direct contact with the environment, and the interstitial fluid is equivalent to the environment.
- In complex organisms, evolutionary adaptations enable sufficient exchange with the environment.
- Anatomy is the biological form of an organism, while physiology is the biological functions an organism performs.
Hierarchical Organization of Body Plans
- Most animals are composed of specialized cells organized into tissues with different functions.
- Tissues make up organs, which together make up organ systems.
- Some organs belong to more than one system.
Evolution of Animal Size and Shape
- Physical laws govern strength, diffusion, movement, and heat exchange.
- Properties of water limit possible shapes for fast-swimming animals.
- As animals increase in size, thicker skeletons are required for support.
- Convergent evolution results in similar adaptations of diverse organisms facing the same challenge.
Exchange with the Environment
- Nutrients, waste products, and gases must be exchanged across cell membranes of animal cells.
- Rate of exchange should be proportional to a cell's surface area, while amount of exchange material is proportional to a cell's volume.
- Single-celled organisms living in water have sufficient surface area to carry out all necessary exchange.
Exploring Structure and Function in Animal Tissues
- Different tissues have different structures suited to their functions.
- Tissues are classified into four main categories: Epithelial, Connective, Muscle, and Nervous.
- Epithelial tissue covers the outside of the body and lines organs and cavities within the body, serving as a barrier against mechanical injury, pathogens, and fluid loss.
- Epithelial tissue can be cuboidal, columnar, or squamous.
- Fibrous Connective Tissue is found in tendons and ligaments.
- Bone tissue is mineralized and forms the skeleton, with bone cells called Osteocytes.
- Adipose Tissue stores fat for insulation and fuel.### Cell Types and Tissue
- Adipocytes: cells that make up adipose tissue, which stores energy
- Epithelial tissue: has two surfaces, apical (outer) and basal (inner)
- Connective tissue:
- Binds and supports other tissues
- Contains sparsely packed cells scattered throughout an extracellular matrix
- Matrix consists of fibers in a liquid, jellylike, or solid foundation
- Three types of connective tissue fibers:
- Collagenous fibers: provide strength and flexibility
- Elastic fibers: stretch and snap back to original length
- Reticular fibers: join connective tissue to adjacent tissues
- Contains cells, including fibroblasts (secrete protein of extracellular fibers) and macrophages (involved in immune system)
Muscle Tissue
- Muscle cells consist of filaments of the proteins actin and myosin, which enable contraction
- Three types of muscle tissue:
- Skeletal muscle (striated muscle): responsible for voluntary movement
- Smooth muscle: responsible for involuntary body activities
- Cardiac muscle: responsible for contraction of the heart
Nervous Tissue
- Functions in the receipt, processing, and transmission of information
- Contains neurons (or nerve cells) that transmit nerve impulses and glial cells (or support cells)
Control and Coordination
- Homeostasis: the ability to maintain a steady internal environment despite external changes
- Two types of control systems:
- Regulator: uses internal control mechanisms to maintain homeostasis
- Conformer: allows internal conditions to vary with external changes
Endocrine System
- Transmits chemical signals (hormones) to receptive cells throughout the body via blood
- Hormones can affect one or more regions of the body
- Relatively slow-acting, but can have long-lasting effects
Homeostasis
- Mechanisms of homeostasis:
- Negative feedback: helps return a variable to a normal range
- Positive feedback: amplifies a stimulus, but does not usually contribute to homeostasis
- Set points and normal ranges can change with age or show cyclic variation
- Examples of homeostasis: body temperature, blood pH, and glucose concentration
Thermoregulation
- Process by which animals maintain an internal temperature within a tolerable range
- Two types of thermoregulation:
- Ectothermic: gain heat from external sources
- Endothermic: generate heat through metabolism
- Birds and mammals are endotherms, while most invertebrates, fish, amphibians, and non-avian reptiles are ectotherms
- Five adaptations help animals thermoregulate:
- Insulation
- Circulatory adaptations
- Cooling by evaporative heat loss
- Behavioral responses
- Adjusting metabolic heat production
Energy Allocation and Use
- Organisms can be classified by how they obtain chemical energy:
- Autotrophs: harness light energy to build energy-rich molecules
- Heterotrophs: harvest chemical energy from food
- Metabolic rate: the amount of energy an animal uses in a unit of time
- Can be determined by:
- An animal's heat loss
- The amount of oxygen consumed or carbon dioxide produced
- Measuring energy content of food consumed and energy lost in waste products
Metabolic Rate and Thermoregulation
- Metabolic rate is proportional to body mass to the power of three-quarters (m^3/4)
- Smaller animals have higher metabolic rates per gram than larger animals
- Activity and nutrition also influence metabolic rate
- In general, the maximum metabolic rate an animal can sustain is inversely related to the duration of the activity
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Description
Learn about the structure and function of multicellular animal bodies, including the role of interstitial fluid and levels of organization.
