Biology Genetics Chapter Quiz
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Questions and Answers

What is the ploidy level of gametes produced by meiosis?

  • Tetraploid
  • Haploid (correct)
  • Diploid
  • Triploid

How many chromosomes are present in a germ cell prior to meiosis?

  • 23 chromosomes
  • 40 chromosomes
  • 46 chromosomes (correct)
  • 92 chromosomes

Which process involves the union of homologs during meiosis?

  • Synapsis (correct)
  • Differentiation
  • Replication
  • Cytokinesis

What is the function of the gonads in the context of germ cells?

<p>Production of gametes (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of division occurs during meiosis I?

<p>Reduction division (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During which stage are dyads formed?

<p>Prophase I (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes the genetic makeup represented by 'N'?

<p>Haploid (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the outcome of meiosis in terms of chromosome number?

<p>Reduces the chromosome number by half (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What change occurs to chromosome structure before meiosis begins?

<p>Chromosomes replicate (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How many daughter cells are produced at the end of meiosis?

<p>Four (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which theory suggests that DNA is inherited from all body parts?

<p>Pangenesis (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Who disproved the theory of Pangenesis using the rat experiment?

<p>August Weismann (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Blending Inheritance propose about offspring traits?

<p>They are a combination of the two parents' traits. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In genetics, what do independent events refer to?

<p>Events that do not affect each other's probabilities. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

When using the Rule of Multiplication, what does it calculate?

<p>The product of individual probabilities of independent events. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for traits acquired by an organism that can be passed down to offspring?

<p>Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'mutually exclusive events' refer to in probability?

<p>Events that cannot happen at the same time. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of genetics, what do gametes contribute to?

<p>The genetic makeup of the zygote. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which example illustrates a binomial probability scenario?

<p>The probability of 15 students gaining acceptance when only 2 are admitted. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements best summarizes the Germ-Plasm Theory?

<p>DNA is exclusively inherited from reproductive tissues. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary distinction between sexual and asexual reproduction?

<p>Sexual reproduction results in genetically distinct offspring, while asexual reproduction results in clones. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which phase of the eukaryotic cell cycle is primarily responsible for DNA replication?

<p>S phase (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In meiosis, which statement accurately describes the outcome?

<p>Meiosis results in haploid gametes that are genetically distinct. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are cohesins primarily responsible for during cell replication?

<p>Binding sister chromatids together until anaphase. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During which phase do the chromosomes line up at the equatorial plane?

<p>Metaphase (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the Hayflick limit associated with in cellular biology?

<p>The maximum number of divisions before a cell undergoes senescence. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which structures are primarily involved in the separation of sister chromatids during anaphase?

<p>Spindle fibers (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What kind of chromosomes contain the same gene order but may differ in alleles?

<p>Homologous chromosomes (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of the centrosome during cell division?

<p>It anchors astral microtubules during mitosis. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about prokaryotic binary fission is accurate?

<p>It is a form of asexual reproduction with a rapid division time. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During which phase are the nuclear envelope and nucleolus reformed?

<p>Telophase (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are alleles?

<p>Different versions of the same gene. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a defining feature of triploid organisms?

<p>They possess three sets of chromosomes. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which protein is primarily responsible for degrading securin during anaphase?

<p>Anaphase Promoting Complex (APC) (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary outcome of spermatogenesis?

<p>Formation of four sperm from one spermatogonium (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which process during oogenesis results in the production of polar bodies?

<p>Unequal cytokinesis (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

After cytokinesis in oogenesis, how many viable gametes are produced?

<p>Three nonfunctional polar bodies and one egg (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of independent assortment in genetics?

<p>It allows for the combination of genes from different chromosomes. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of chemical stimulation during spermatogenesis?

<p>It initiates the differentiation of spermatogonium. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which model organism was primarily used by Mendel for genetic research?

<p>Pisum sativum (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What describes the gametes produced during spermatogenesis?

<p>All gametes have distinct genetic variations due to independent assortment. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the final result of sperm differentiation in spermatogenesis?

<p>Formation of four viable sperm cells (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect of oogenesis differs significantly from spermatogenesis?

<p>Oogenesis produces only one functional gamete. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is produced during the first meiotic division in oogenesis?

<p>One secondary oocyte and one polar body (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of colchicine in cell biology?

<p>To stop cell division at metaphase (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of mutation specifically involves a change in a single base pair?

<p>Point mutation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes a balanced chromosomal rearrangement?

<p>It results in an equal exchange of genetic material (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes germ-line mutations?

<p>They can be passed to offspring (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following accurately defines aneuploidy?

<p>An abnormal number of chromosomes in a cell (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of somatic cells?

<p>They do not contribute to genetic inheritance (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which term best describes a mutation that alters one part of a chromosome?

<p>Chromosomal rearrangement (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does an unbalanced chromosomal rearrangement typically have on a cell?

<p>It results in a decrease in genetic material (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the consequence of chromosomal mutations on development?

<p>They can lead to developmental abnormalities (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How are mutations classified based on their location in the organism?

<p>Somatic and germ-line mutations (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does a Monohybrid Cross examine?

<p>One trait across multiple generations (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following accurately describes Incomplete Dominance?

<p>Traits blend to form an intermediate phenotype (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In a Dihybrid Cross, what ratios are typically observed for phenotype?

<p>9:3:3:1 (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of Mendel's First Law?

<p>It states that alleles segregate independently during gamete formation. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Epistasis refer to in genetics?

<p>One gene masking the expression of another gene (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which blood type is considered the universal donor?

<p>Type O (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes Codominance?

<p>Both alleles are fully expressed without blending (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is Penetrance in genetics?

<p>The degree to which a genetic trait manifests in individuals (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Nondisjunction can lead to which of the following?

<p>Failure of chromatids to separate during meiosis (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the equation $2^n$ represent in genetics?

<p>The potential number of gametes produced (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of dominance results in an intermediate phenotype in offspring?

<p>Incomplete dominance (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If a parent has genotype $Tt$ and another parent has $tt$, what is the possible genotypic ratio of their offspring?

<p>1:1 (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of a violation of Mendel's Second Law?

<p>Genes located closely on the same chromosome being inherited together (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In genetics, what does the term 'Hypostatic Loci' refer to?

<p>Loci that are masked by other genes (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Pangenesis

The incorrect idea that traits acquired during an organism's lifetime are passed down to offspring. This was proposed by Darwin.

Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics

The idea that traits gained during an organism's lifetime are inherited by offspring.

Germ-Plasm Theory

The correct theory that inheritance occurs through specific particles (genes) found only in reproductive cells, not the whole body.

Gametes

The reproductive cells (sperm and egg) that carry genetic information from parents to offspring.

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Zygote

The single cell formed when a sperm fertilizes an egg.

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Simple Probability

The probability of a single event, expressed as a fraction or decimal.

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Combined Probability

The probability of multiple events happening together or one after another.

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Rule of Multiplication

Used to calculate the probability of multiple independent events happening together.

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Rule of Addition

Used to calculate the probability of one of multiple mutually exclusive events occurring.

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Binomial Probability

Used to calculate the probability of a specific number of successes (or failures) in a series of independent trials.

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Germ cells

Specialized cells that give rise to gametes (sperm or egg cells).

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Chromosome number in germ cells

Germ cells have 46 chromosomes, the same number as a normal body cell.

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Chromosome number in gametes

Gametes have 23 chromosomes, half the number found in germ cells and body cells.

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Gonads

Organs that produce germ cells (testes in males, ovaries in females).

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Meiosis

A type of cell division that reduces the number of chromosomes in a cell by half, producing gametes.

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Synapsis

The pairing of homologous chromosomes (pairs of chromosomes with similar genes) during meiosis.

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Tetrad

A group of four chromatids (copies of a chromosome) formed by the synapsis of homologous chromosomes.

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Meiosis I (Reduction division)

The first stage of meiosis where the number of chromosomes is halved, resulting in two daughter cells with half the number of chromosomes.

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Meiosis II

The second stage of meiosis, similar to mitosis, where sister chromatids separate, resulting in four daughter cells with half the number of chromosomes.

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Sexual Reproduction

A type of reproduction involving the genetic contribution of two individuals, resulting in offspring that are genetically distinct.

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Asexual Reproduction

A type of reproduction involving only one parent, resulting in offspring that are genetically identical clones.

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Prokaryotic Binary Fission

A form of asexual reproduction in prokaryotes where a single-celled organism divides into two identical daughter cells.

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Eukaryotic Cell Cycle

The series of stages that a eukaryotic cell goes through during its life, including growth, DNA replication, and division.

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G1 Phase

The first phase of the eukaryotic cell cycle where the cell grows and carries out normal metabolic activities.

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S Phase

The phase of the eukaryotic cell cycle where DNA replication occurs, doubling the amount of genetic material in the cell.

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G2 Phase

The second growth phase of the eukaryotic cell cycle where the cell prepares for mitosis.

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M Phase

The phase of the eukaryotic cell cycle where mitosis and cytokinesis occur, resulting in the division of the cell into two daughter cells.

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Prophase

The first stage of mitosis where chromosomes condense, the nuclear envelope breaks down, and the mitotic spindle forms.

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Prometaphase

The stage of mitosis where the nuclear envelope completely dissolves and the spindle fibers attach to the chromosomes at their kinetochores.

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Metaphase

The stage of mitosis where the chromosomes align along the equatorial plane of the cell, ensuring equal distribution of genetic material.

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Anaphase

The stage of mitosis where the sister chromatids of each chromosome separate and move to opposite poles of the cell.

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Telophase

The final stage of mitosis where the chromosomes decondense, the nuclear envelope reforms around each set of chromosomes, and the cell divides.

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Cytokinesis

The process of cell division where the cytoplasm divides, resulting in two distinct daughter cells.

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Hayflick Limit

The maximum number of times a normal human cell population can divide before entering senescence or death.

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Karyotype

A visual representation of an organism's complete set of chromosomes arranged in order of size and shape.

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Colchicine

A chemical used to stop cell division at metaphase by destroying spindles, which are structures that separate chromosomes during cell division.

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Mutations

Permanent changes in the DNA sequence of a gene or chromosome.

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Somatic Mutations

Mutations that occur in any cell of the body except sperm or egg cells, meaning they are not inherited by offspring.

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Germ-Line Mutations

Mutations that occur in sperm or egg cells, meaning they are passed down to offspring.

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Point Mutation

A mutation affecting a single nucleotide base pair in a DNA sequence.

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Chromosomal Rearrangements

Mutations involving structural changes in chromosomes, such as deletions, duplications, inversions, and translocations.

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Balanced Chromosomal Rearrangement

A chromosomal rearrangement in which no genetic material is lost or gained, so the individual is generally phenotypically normal.

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Unbalanced Chromosomal Rearrangement

A chromosomal rearrangement in which genetic material is either lost or gained, leading to developmental problems or genetic abnormalities.

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Aneuploidy

A condition where an individual has an abnormal number of chromosomes, either more or fewer than the typical two copies of each chromosome.

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Spermatogenesis

The process of sperm cell production in males, starting with a spermatogonium and ending with four mature sperm cells. It includes stages like meiosis and differentiation.

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Random Fertilization

The random union of a sperm and an egg during fertilization, contributing to genetic variation in offspring.

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Independent Assortment

The random separation of homologous chromosomes during meiosis, leading to different combinations of genes in gametes.

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Polar Body

A small cell produced during oogenesis that contains little cytoplasm and is eventually degraded. It serves to dispose of excess chromosomes.

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Model Organisms

Organisms chosen for genetic research due to their ease of study and the possibility to make inferences about other organisms.

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Rsum Sativum (Common Garden Pea)

Mendel's chosen model organism, which was essential in discovering the basic laws of inheritance.

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What is Transformation?

A process where a competent bacterial cell takes up DNA from its environment. This DNA was released from another bacterial cell that was lysed. The cell doesn't need to be alive.

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What is Conjugation?

A process where two bacterial cells connect via a tube known as the sex pilus and transfer DNA. Often, this involves plasmids, but it can also involve chromosomal DNA in some bacteria.

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What is Hfr (High-Frequency Recombination) Conjugation?

A specialized type of conjugation where a cell with an F factor integrated into its chromosome (Hfr) transfers chromosomal DNA to a recipient cell

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What is F' (F prime) Conjugation?

A type of conjugation where a cell with an F factor that has picked up a piece of the chromosome (F') transfers this DNA to a recipient cell. This is a mix of conjugation and recombination.

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What is Transduction?

A process where a virus (bacterial vector) carries DNA from one bacterium to another. It acts as a carrier of DNA.

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What is Generalized Transduction?

A type of transduction where any fragment of bacterial DNA can be transferred via a virus to a recipient cell.

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What is Specialized Transduction?

A type of transduction where a virus (bacteriophage) only picks up specific genes from a bacterial host because it has integrated its DNA into the host's DNA.

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What is a Telomere?

The protective cap at the end of a chromosome that protects the DNA sequence and prevents degradation.

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What is a Centromere?

The constricted region of a chromosome where spindle fibers attach during cell division.

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What is Euchromatin?

The less condensed form of DNA found in chromosomes that is actively transcribed.

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What is Heterochromatin?

The more condensed form of DNA found in chromosomes that is not actively transcribed.

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What are the four types of chromosome structures?

Chromosomes are categorized into four types based on their structure. These types are metacentric, sub-metacentric, acrocentric, and telocentric. These structures are determined by the position of the centromere.

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What is a Karyotype?

The complete set of chromosomes in a cell, organized by size and shape. This is useful for studying chromosome number and structure, and can help detect abnormalities.

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What is a Gene?

A segment of DNA that codes for a particular protein or functional RNA.

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What is an Allele?

Alternative forms of a gene, found at the same locus on homologous chromosomes. Different alleles can lead to different traits.

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What is a Locus?

The specific location of a gene on a chromosome.

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Study Notes

Genetics Overview

  • Karyotype: full set of chromosomes in an organism
  • Vertical gene transfer: DNA exchange from parent to offspring
  • Horizontal gene transfer: DNA exchange between individuals of the same generation (mostly prokaryotes)
  • Germplasm refers to reproductive material that's passed down
  • Particulate inheritance: traits are inherited as discrete units, not blended
  • Mendel's Laws : 1st Law of Segregation, 2nd Law of Independent Assortment

Probability

  • Simple probability: (number of desired outcomes)/(total possible outcomes)
  • Combined probability: depends on whether events are independent or mutually exclusive
  • Independent events ("and"): multiply individual probabilities
  • Mutually exclusive events ("either/or"): sum individual probabilities

Prokaryotic Cell Cycle and Binary Fission

  • Binary fission: asexual reproduction in prokaryotes
  • Chromosome replication occurs during binary fission.
  • Prokaryotes don't have a nucleus
  • Prokaryotic replication is much quicker than eukaryotic

Eukaryotic Cell Cycle and Mitosis

  • Eukaryotes have a nucleus that contains chromosomes.
  • Mitosis results in two identical daughter cells
  • The process involves 4 stages
    • Interphase (growth period)
    • Prophase(chromosome condense)
    • Metaphase (chromosomes line up)
    • Anaphase (sister chromatids separate)
    • Telophase (chromosomes arrive at opposite poles)
    • Cytokinesis (cell division)

Meiosis

  • Meiosis is a type of cell division that produces gametes
  • Meiosis involves two rounds of cell division produces four genetically different daughter cells
  • Homologous chromosomes pair up during meiosis I
  • Crossing over exchange genetic material occurs
  • Sister chromatids separate during meiosis II
  • Diploid (2n) to haploid (n) gametes

Sex Determination

  • Mechanisms: XO, XX/XY, ZW
  • Sex-linked genes: located on sex chromosomes, usually X
  • Dosage compensation: regulation of X-chromosome gene expression to balance expression in different sexes (in mammals, one X is inactivated)

Genetic Mutations

  • Somatic mutations- occur in non-reproductive cells
  • Germline mutations - occur in reproductive cells
  • Point mutations: change in a single base pair
  • Chromosomal mutations: changes in chromosome structure (e.g., deletions, duplications, inversions, translocations)
  • Aneuploidy: abnormal number of chromosomes due to nondisjunction (e.g., monosomy, trisomy)
  • Polyploidy: having more than two sets of chromosomes (common in plants)

Genetic Variation

  • Mutations: changes in the DNA sequence
  • Recombination generating new combinations of alleles
  • Errors in replication affecting the sequence
  • Non-random mating: changes in allelic frequencies
  • Natural Selection altering frequencies of alleles depending on their survival value
  • Gene Flow allele movement between populations

Non-Mendelian Inheritance

  • Mitochondrial: passed down maternally
  • Maternal Effect: mother's genotype determines offspring phenotype
  • Genomic Imprinting: expression of a gene depends on which parent it's inherited from
  • Sex-limited/Sex-influenced traits: traits with different expression in each sex

Genetic Regulation

  • Transcriptional Regulation: factors control if/how to transcribe gene
  • Epigenetics: modification of gene expression without changes in DNA sequence
  • Methylation, Histone modifications
  • RNA interference
  • Riboswitches (regulatory regions in mRNA)

Genetic Technologies

  • Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR): to copy DNA fragments for analysis
  • DNA sequencing: to determine a DNA sequence
  • Transformation + Recombinant DNA: Combine DNA segments from different sources/species

Human Genetics

  • Pedigrees: Family trees showing the inheritance of traits over generations
  • X-linked traits: gene on x-chromosome affects both males and females differently

Bacterial Genetics/Horizontal Gene Transfer

  • Transformation
  • Transduction
  • Conjugation
  • Plasmids

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