Podcast
Questions and Answers
During which stage of meiosis do sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles?
During which stage of meiosis do sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles?
Which type of tissue is responsible for transmitting electrical signals throughout the body?
Which type of tissue is responsible for transmitting electrical signals throughout the body?
Which type of membrane lines body cavities that open to the outside environment?
Which type of membrane lines body cavities that open to the outside environment?
What is the primary function of connective tissue?
What is the primary function of connective tissue?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of epithelial tissue?
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of epithelial tissue?
Signup and view all the answers
What type of gland secretes substances directly into the bloodstream?
What type of gland secretes substances directly into the bloodstream?
Signup and view all the answers
Which type of muscle is responsible for involuntary movements like digestion and blood vessel constriction?
Which type of muscle is responsible for involuntary movements like digestion and blood vessel constriction?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary component of cartilage that contributes to its flexible nature?
What is the primary component of cartilage that contributes to its flexible nature?
Signup and view all the answers
Which antibody type is primarily involved in allergic reactions?
Which antibody type is primarily involved in allergic reactions?
Signup and view all the answers
Which muscle type is found in the walls of internal organs?
Which muscle type is found in the walls of internal organs?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the function of the Orbicularis Oris muscle?
What is the function of the Orbicularis Oris muscle?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of these structures defines the functional unit of muscle contraction?
Which of these structures defines the functional unit of muscle contraction?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary function of the Sternocleidomastoid muscle?
What is the primary function of the Sternocleidomastoid muscle?
Signup and view all the answers
Which type of muscle is controlled consciously by the somatic nervous system?
Which type of muscle is controlled consciously by the somatic nervous system?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the function of the Trapezius muscle?
What is the function of the Trapezius muscle?
Signup and view all the answers
Which type of muscle is found only in the heart?
Which type of muscle is found only in the heart?
Signup and view all the answers
Which part of the brain is responsible for coordinating voluntary movements, balance, and posture?
Which part of the brain is responsible for coordinating voluntary movements, balance, and posture?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following is NOT a function of the brainstem?
Which of the following is NOT a function of the brainstem?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the function of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)?
What is the function of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)?
Signup and view all the answers
Which part of the nervous system controls involuntary body functions like heart rate and digestion?
Which part of the nervous system controls involuntary body functions like heart rate and digestion?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary function of spinal nerves?
What is the primary function of spinal nerves?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of a reflex action?
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of a reflex action?
Signup and view all the answers
Which division of the autonomic nervous system prepares the body for "fight or flight" responses?
Which division of the autonomic nervous system prepares the body for "fight or flight" responses?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the correct order of structures from the brain to the body?
What is the correct order of structures from the brain to the body?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary function of the cochlea in the inner ear?
What is the primary function of the cochlea in the inner ear?
Signup and view all the answers
Which component of the ear is primarily involved in balance?
Which component of the ear is primarily involved in balance?
Signup and view all the answers
What role does the throat (pharynx) play in the human body?
What role does the throat (pharynx) play in the human body?
Signup and view all the answers
What is NOT a function of the nose?
What is NOT a function of the nose?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following statements about the tongue is true?
Which of the following statements about the tongue is true?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary function of lymphatic vessels?
What is the primary function of lymphatic vessels?
Signup and view all the answers
Which lymphatic organ is responsible for maturing T lymphocytes?
Which lymphatic organ is responsible for maturing T lymphocytes?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a key function of the spleen?
What is a key function of the spleen?
Signup and view all the answers
Where are Peyer's patches located?
Where are Peyer's patches located?
Signup and view all the answers
What type of immunoglobulin is most abundant in blood?
What type of immunoglobulin is most abundant in blood?
Signup and view all the answers
Which component is NOT a function of lymph nodes?
Which component is NOT a function of lymph nodes?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following structures helps defend against pathogens entering through the mouth or nose?
Which of the following structures helps defend against pathogens entering through the mouth or nose?
Signup and view all the answers
What characterizes larger lymphatic vessels?
What characterizes larger lymphatic vessels?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the function of isotonic solutions in intravenous therapy?
What is the function of isotonic solutions in intravenous therapy?
Signup and view all the answers
Which chamber of the heart receives oxygenated blood from the lungs?
Which chamber of the heart receives oxygenated blood from the lungs?
Signup and view all the answers
During which phase of the cardiac cycle do the ventricles contract?
During which phase of the cardiac cycle do the ventricles contract?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the role of the sinoatrial (SA) node in the heart?
What is the role of the sinoatrial (SA) node in the heart?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following valves closes to create the second heart sound (S2)?
Which of the following valves closes to create the second heart sound (S2)?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary function of the heart?
What is the primary function of the heart?
Signup and view all the answers
Where does blood flow after it leaves the right ventricle?
Where does blood flow after it leaves the right ventricle?
Signup and view all the answers
What defines a hypertonic solution in the context of intravenous therapy?
What defines a hypertonic solution in the context of intravenous therapy?
Signup and view all the answers
Flashcards
Anaphase II
Anaphase II
Phase in meiosis where sister chromatids are separated to opposite poles.
Telophase II
Telophase II
Phase in meiosis where nuclear envelopes reform, creating four unique haploid cells.
Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial Tissue
Tightly packed cells that protect surfaces and absorb nutrients.
Connective Tissue
Connective Tissue
Signup and view all the flashcards
Muscular Tissue
Muscular Tissue
Signup and view all the flashcards
Nervous Tissue
Nervous Tissue
Signup and view all the flashcards
Mucous Membranes
Mucous Membranes
Signup and view all the flashcards
Exocrine Glands
Exocrine Glands
Signup and view all the flashcards
Ossicles
Ossicles
Signup and view all the flashcards
Cochlea
Cochlea
Signup and view all the flashcards
Semicircular Canals
Semicircular Canals
Signup and view all the flashcards
Function of the Ear
Function of the Ear
Signup and view all the flashcards
Tongue Function
Tongue Function
Signup and view all the flashcards
Intravenous Therapy
Intravenous Therapy
Signup and view all the flashcards
Hypertonic Solution
Hypertonic Solution
Signup and view all the flashcards
Hypotonic Solution
Hypotonic Solution
Signup and view all the flashcards
Isotonic Solution
Isotonic Solution
Signup and view all the flashcards
Heart Structure
Heart Structure
Signup and view all the flashcards
Cardiac Cycle Phases
Cardiac Cycle Phases
Signup and view all the flashcards
SA Node
SA Node
Signup and view all the flashcards
Heart Sounds
Heart Sounds
Signup and view all the flashcards
Lymphatic Capillaries
Lymphatic Capillaries
Signup and view all the flashcards
Larger Lymphatic Vessels
Larger Lymphatic Vessels
Signup and view all the flashcards
Lymphatic Nodes
Lymphatic Nodes
Signup and view all the flashcards
Spleen
Spleen
Signup and view all the flashcards
Thymus
Thymus
Signup and view all the flashcards
Tonsils
Tonsils
Signup and view all the flashcards
Peyer's Patches
Peyer's Patches
Signup and view all the flashcards
Immunoglobulins (Ig)
Immunoglobulins (Ig)
Signup and view all the flashcards
IgM
IgM
Signup and view all the flashcards
IgE
IgE
Signup and view all the flashcards
IgD
IgD
Signup and view all the flashcards
Voluntary Muscles
Voluntary Muscles
Signup and view all the flashcards
Involuntary Muscles
Involuntary Muscles
Signup and view all the flashcards
Cardiac Muscle
Cardiac Muscle
Signup and view all the flashcards
Skeletal Muscles
Skeletal Muscles
Signup and view all the flashcards
Orbicularis Oculi
Orbicularis Oculi
Signup and view all the flashcards
Function of the Cerebrum
Function of the Cerebrum
Signup and view all the flashcards
Midbrain Structure
Midbrain Structure
Signup and view all the flashcards
Midbrain Function
Midbrain Function
Signup and view all the flashcards
Cerebellum Function
Cerebellum Function
Signup and view all the flashcards
Brainstem Structure
Brainstem Structure
Signup and view all the flashcards
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) Role
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) Role
Signup and view all the flashcards
Spinal Nerves
Spinal Nerves
Signup and view all the flashcards
Reflex Action
Reflex Action
Signup and view all the flashcards
Study Notes
1.1 Definition of Anatomy and Physiology; Various Suffixes and Prefixes Used in Anatomy and Physiology
- Anatomy: The branch of biology concerned with the study of the structure of organisms and their parts. Anatomy examines the physical structure of the body.
- Physiology: The branch of biology that deals with the normal functions of living organisms and their parts. Physiology focuses on how the body and its systems work.
- Suffixes:
- -itis: Inflammation (e.g., gastritis)
- -ectomy: Removal (e.g., appendectomy)
- -osis: Condition or disease (e.g., neurosis)
- -ology: Study of (e.g., cardiology)
- Prefixes:
- Hyper-: Excessive (e.g., hypertension)
- Hypo-: Below normal (e.g., hypoglycemia)
- Sub-: Under or below (e.g., subcutaneous)
1.2 Definition of Different Terminologies Used in Various Systems
- Cardiovascular System: The system responsible for the circulation of blood and lymph through the body. Key terms include heart, arteries, veins, and capillaries.
- Respiratory System: The system responsible for breathing and gas exchange. Key terms include lungs, bronchi, alveoli, and diaphragm.
- Digestive System: The system that breaks down food into nutrients. Key terms include stomach, intestines, liver, and pancreas.
- Nervous System: The system that controls bodily functions and processes sensory information. Key terms include brain, spinal cord, nerves, and neurons.
- Musculoskeletal System: The system that provides structure and support through bones and muscles. Key terms include bones, muscles, tendons, and ligaments.
1.3 Main Cavities: Cranial, Thoracic, Abdominal, and Pelvic
- Cranial Cavity: Contains the brain and is protected by the skull.
- Thoracic Cavity: Contains the heart and lungs, bounded by the rib cage and diaphragm.
- Abdominal Cavity: Contains digestive organs such as the stomach, intestines, liver, and kidneys.
- Pelvic Cavity: Contains reproductive organs, bladder, and rectum, and is bordered by the pelvis.
1.4 Anatomical Position of the Body
- Anterior (Ventral): Front of the body.
- Posterior (Dorsal): Back of the body.
- Superior: Above or closer to the head.
- Inferior: Below or closer to the feet.
- Proximal: Closer to the point of origin or attachment.
- Distal: Further from the point of origin or attachment.
- Dorsal: Pertaining to the back.
- Ventral: Pertaining to the front or belly side.
1.5 Range of Motion
- Flexion: Decreasing the angle between body parts (e.g., bending the elbow).
- Extension: Increasing the angle between body parts (e.g., straightening the elbow).
- Abduction: Moving a limb away from the midline of the body (e.g., lifting the arm sideways).
- Adduction: Moving a limb toward the midline of the body (e.g., lowering the arm to the side).
- Rotation: Turning a body part around its axis (e.g., turning the head).
- Circumduction: Circular movement of a limb (e.g., moving the arm in a circular motion).
- Supination: Rotating the forearm so the palm faces up or forward.
- Pronation: Rotating the forearm so the palm faces down or backward.
- Opposition: Movement of the thumb to touch the fingertips.
2.1 The Structure and Functions of Human Cells
- Cell Membrane: The outer boundary of the cell, controlling what enters and leaves the cell. It's composed of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins.
- Nucleus: Contains the cell's genetic material (DNA) and is involved in regulating activities such as growth and metabolism. It has a nuclear envelope, nucleolus, and chromatin.
- Cytoplasm: A jelly-like substance within the cell membrane that contains organelles and is the site for most cellular processes.
- Mitochondria: Known as the "powerhouse" of the cell, they generate ATP through cellular respiration.
- Ribosomes: Sites of protein synthesis.
- Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):
- Rough ER: Studded with ribosomes and involved in protein synthesis and modification.
- Smooth ER: Involved in lipid synthesis and detoxification.
2.2 Cell Division: Mitosis and Meiosis
- Mitosis
- Purpose: Produces two identical daughter cells from a single parent cell, used for growth, repair, and asexual reproduction. -Phases: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase and Cytokinesis
- Meiosis
- Purpose: Produces four genetically unique daughter cells (gametes) from a single parent cell, essential for sexual reproduction.
- Phases: Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, Telophase I, Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II, Telophase II and Cytokinesis
2.3 The Structure and Function of Tissues
-
Epithelial Tissue
- Structure: Cells are tightly packed in layers or sheets.
- Functions: Protects surfaces, absorbs nutrients, secretes substances, and forms barriers (e.g., skin, lining of organs).
-
Connective Tissue
- Structure: Cells are scattered within an extracellular matrix (can be fluid, gel-like, or solid).
- Functions: Supports, binds, and protects tissues and organs (e.g., bone, blood, adipose tissue).
-
Muscular Tissue
- Structure: Cells are long and thin (muscle fibers) and can be striated or non-striated.
- Functions: Facilitates movement (e.g., skeletal muscle for voluntary movement, cardiac muscle for heart contractions, smooth muscle for involuntary movements).
-
Nervous Tissue
- Structure: Composed of neurons (nerve cells) and supporting cells (neuroglia).
- Functions: Transmits electrical signals throughout the body, coordinating and regulating bodily functions.
2.4 Structure and Functions of Membranes, Glands, and Cartilage
-
Membranes
- Structure: Thin layers of tissue covering surfaces, organs, and cavities.
- Types:
- Mucous Membranes: Line body cavities that open to the outside (e.g., digestive tract).
- Serous Membranes: Line body cavities not open to the outside (e.g., thoracic and abdominal cavities).
- Synovial Membranes: Line joints and produce synovial fluid for lubrication.
- Cutaneous Membranes: Skin, covering the external body surface.
-
Glands
- Structure: Cells or organs that secrete substances.
- Types: Exocrine Glands: Secrete substances into ducts (e.g., sweat glands, salivary glands).
-
Cartilage
- Structure: Flexible connective tissue with a dense matrix of collagen and elastic fibers.
- Types:
- Hyaline Cartilage: Provides support with some flexibility (e.g., in the nose, trachea, and at the ends of long bones).
- Elastic Cartilage: Provides flexibility and strength (e.g., in the outer ear).
- Fibrocartilage: Provides strong support and resists compression (e.g., intervertebral discs, menisci)
3.1 Body Fluid and Electrolytes
- Intracellular Fluid (ICF): Fluid within cells, accounting for about 60% of the body's total fluid.
- Extracellular Fluid (ECF): Fluid outside cells, including interstitial fluid, intravascular fluid and transcellular fluid.
- Important Functions of Body Fluid:
- Transport: Delivers nutrients, hormones, and oxygen to cells, and removes waste products.
- Regulation of Temperature: Helps maintain body temperature through sweating and evaporation.
- Lubrication: Reduces friction between body parts and facilitates movement (e.g., synovial fluid in joints).
- Cellular Function: Maintains cell shape, size, and function through osmotic balance.
- Body Fluid and Electrolyte Balance
- Fluid Balance: Maintained by intake (drinks, food) and output (urine, sweat, respiration).
- Electrolyte Balance: Maintained through intake (diet), absorption, and excretion. Key electrolytes include sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, and bicarbonate.
- Importance of Fluid and Electrolyte Balance in Health.
3.2 Acid-Base Balance
- Acid and Base
- Acid: A substance that donates hydrogen ions (H+) in solution, e.g., hydrochloric acid.
- Base: A substance that accepts hydrogen ions (H+) or donates hydroxide ions (OH−) in solution, e.g., sodium hydroxide.
- Mechanisms to maintain Acid-Base Balance:
- Respiratory System: Regulates pH by adjusting rate and depth of breathing to alter carbon dioxide levels.
- Urinary System: Excretes hydrogen ions and reabsorbs bicarbonate to regulate pH.
- Buffer Mechanism: Immediate response to pH changes involves buffer systems in the blood.
3.3 Fluid and Electrolyte Imbalances
- Dehydration/Overhydration
- Dehydration: Loss of water and electrolytes; can result from vomiting, diarrhea, or inadequate intake.
- Overhydration: Excess water intake; can lead to dilution of electrolytes.
- Hypo/Hyperkalemia
- Hypokalemia: Low potassium levels, leading to muscle weakness, arrhythmias.
- Hyperkalemia: High potassium levels, leading to potential cardiac issues.
- Hypo/Hypernatremia
- Hyponatremia: Low sodium levels, causing swelling of cells.
- Hypernatremia: High sodium levels, leading to dehydration of cells.
- Hypo/Hypercalcemia
- Hypocalcemia: Low calcium levels, affecting muscle and nerve function.
- Hypercalcemia: High calcium levels, causing bone pain, kidney stones.
- Hypo/Hypermagnesemia
- Hypomagnesemia: Low magnesium levels, leading to muscle cramps and neurological symptoms.
- Hypermagnesemia: High magnesium levels, causing cardiovascular and neuromuscular issues.
4.1 Circulatory System
-
Heart Structure: Four-chambered organ with two atria (upper chambers) and two ventricles (lower chambers), four valves: tricuspid, pulmonary, mitral, and aortic.
-
Heart Function: Pumps blood throughout the body, delivers oxygen and nutrients while removing carbon dioxide and waste products.
-
Cardiac Cycle:
- Diastole: The heart relaxes and fills with blood; the atria contract to push blood into the ventricles.
- Systole: The ventricles contract to eject blood into the pulmonary artery and aorta. The atria refill with blood from the veins.
-
Conduction System
- Sinoatrial (SA) Node: The natural pacemaker of the heart that initiates the heartbeat.
- Atrioventricular (AV) Node: Delays the impulse before transmitting it to the ventricles.
- Bundle of His: Transmits impulses from the AV node to the ventricles.
- Purkinje Fibers: Spread impulses throughout the ventricles, causing them to contract.
-
Heart Sounds:
- First Heart Sound (S1): "Lub"– Closure of the mitral and tricuspid valves.
- Second Heart Sound (S2): "Dub"– Closure of the aortic and pulmonary valves.
- Normal Blood Flow: Blood flows from the body into the right atrium, through the tricuspid valve to the right ventricle, then to the lungs, returns to the left atrium, passes through the mitral valve to the left ventricle, and pumped to the body through the aorta.
-
Blood Composition
- Cells:
- Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes): Carry oxygen from the lungs to tissues and carbon dioxide back to the lungs.
- White Blood Cells (Leukocytes): Involved in immune response and fighting infection.
- Platelets (Thrombocytes): Aid in blood clotting. -Plasma: The liquid component of blood, composed of water, electrolytes, proteins (e.g., albumin, globulins), hormones, and waste products.
- Cells:
-
Blood Functions
- Transportation: Carries oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and waste products.
- Regulation: Maintains body temperature, pH balance, and fluid volume.
- Protection: Defends against disease through immune cells and antibodies, and prevents blood loss through clotting.
-
Blood Groups
- Blood Groups: A, B, AB, and O, determined by the presence or absence of antigens (A and B) on red blood cells.
- Rhesus Factor (Rh): Positive or negative based on the presence of the Rh antigen on red blood cells.
-
Blood Vessels
- Arteries: Carry oxygenated blood away from the heart (except for the pulmonary arteries), thick, elastic walls to handle high pressure.
- Veins: Return deoxygenated blood to the heart (except for the pulmonary veins), thinner walls and valves to prevent backflow.
- Capillaries: Microscopic vessels where exchange of gases, nutrients, and waste occurs between blood and tissues.
-
Blood Pressure
- Definition: The force exerted by blood on the walls of blood vessels.
- Measurement: Systolic (pressure during ventricular contraction) over diastolic (pressure during ventricular relaxation).
-
Pulse
- Definition: The rhythmic expansion and contraction of arteries as blood is pumped through them.
- Measurement Sites: Commonly measured at the wrist (radial pulse) or neck (carotid pulse).
4.3 Different Kinds of Circulation
- Pulmonary Circulation: Pathway of blood from the right ventricle to the lungs for oxygenation and returns to the left atrium via pulmonary veins.
- Systemic Circulation: Pathway of oxygenated blood from the left ventricle through the aorta to the body's tissues and returns deoxygenated blood to the right atrium.
- Portal Circulation: Blood flows from the gastrointestinal tract and spleen through the hepatic portal vein to the liver for processing before returning to the heart.
- Fetal Circulation: Blood bypasses the lungs in the fetus through structures like the ductus arteriosus and foramen ovale, connecting the umbilical cord to the placenta.
5.1 Structure and Function of the Lymphatic System
-
Lymphatic Vessels: A network of vessels transporting lymph. Includes lymphatic capillaries, collecting vessels, lymph nodes, and lymphatic ducts
-
Lymph: A clear fluid containing lymphocytes, proteins, fats, and cellular debris from interstitial fluid.
-
Lymphatic Ducts
- Right lymphatic duct: Drains lymph from the right upper body into the right subclavian vein.
- Thoracic Duct: Drains lymph from the rest of the body into the left subclavian vein
-
Function of Lymphatic System
- Fluid Recovery: Collects excess interstitial fluid and returns it to the bloodstream, preventing fluid accumulation (edema).
- Immune Response: Filters lymph through lymph nodes where immune cells respond to pathogens.
- Fat Absorption: Absorbs dietary fats from the small intestine and transports them to the bloodstream.
5.2 Lymphatic Vessels
- Lymphatic Capillaries: Tiny, thin-walled vessels absorb interstitial fluid throughout tissues
- Larger Lymphatic Vessels: Have valves to prevent backflow toward lymph nodes and ducts.
- Lymphatic Nodes; Filter lymph and house immune cells.
- Function: Carry lymph from tissues to lymph nodes and eventually to the bloodstream. Filter lymphatic vessels especially in nodes, filter out pathogens and debris from lymph before re-entering the bloodstream.
5.3 Lymphatic Organs and Tissue
-
Lymph Nodes
- Structure: Small, bean-shaped structures distributed along lymphatic vessels, with an outer cortex and inner medulla.
- Function: Filter lymph, trapping pathogens and foreign particles, containing lymphocytes and macrophages that initiate immune responses.
-
Spleen
- Structure: The largest lymphatic organ with a red pulp (filters blood) and white pulp (immune function).
- Function: Filters blood, removes old or damaged red blood cells, stores blood components, and initiates immune responses to bloodborne pathogens.
-
Thymus:
- Structure: A bilobed organ located behind the sternum.
- Function: Matures T lymphocytes (T cells), crucial for adaptive immunity, active during childhood and shrinks with age.
-
Tonsils and Peyer's Patches:
- Tonsils: Located at the throat that trap and neutralize pathogens entering through the mouth or nose.
- Peyer's Patches: Aggregates of lymphoid tissue in the ileum of the small intestine, monitor intestinal bacteria populations and prevent the growth of pathogenic bacteria.
-
Immunoglobulins and Their Types: Antibodies produced by B cells that recognize and bind to specific antigens.
6.1 Types, Structure, and Functions of Muscles
- Voluntary Muscles
- Structure: Striated appearance with long, cylindrical fibers.
- Function: Controlled consciously by the somatic nervous system. Skeletal muscles that move bones and facilitate locomotion and posture.
- Involuntary Muscles
- Structure: Non-striated appearance with spindle-shaped cells.
- Function: Controlled unconsciously by the autonomic nervous system. Smooth muscles found in walls of internal organs and blood vessels, responsible for movements such as peristalsis and vasoconstriction.
- Cardiac Muscle
- Structure: Striated appearance with branched, interconnected fibers. Contains intercalated discs that facilitate synchronized contraction.
- Function: Involuntary muscle found only in the heart. Pumps blood throughout the circulatory system and maintains heart rhythm.
6.2 Principal Skeletal Muscles
- Muscles of the Face, Neck, Trunk, Shoulder, and Upper Limb.
- Face: Orbicularis Oculi, Orbicularis Oris, Masseter
- Neck: Sternocleidomastoid, Trapezius
- Trunk: Rectus Abdominis
- Shoulder: Deltoid, Rotator Cuff Muscles
- Upper Limb: Biceps Brachii, Triceps Brachii, Brachioradialis
- Hip: Iliopsoas, Gluteus Maximus
- Thigh: Quadriceps Femoris, Hamstrings (Biceps Femoris, Semitendinosus, Semimembranosus)
- Leg:Gastrocnemius, Tibialis Anterior
- Pelvic Floor: Levator Ani,Coccygeus
7.1 Definition: Bone, Joint
-
Bone: A rigid organ that constitutes part of the vertebrate skeleton. Bones provide support, protection, and structure to the body and facilitate movement.
-
Joint: A connection between two or more bones that enables movement and provides stability to the skeletal structure. Joints are classified based on their structure (fixed, cartilaginous, and synovial) and function.
7.2 Development of Bone
-
Osteogenesis: The process of bone formation.
- Intramembranous Ossification: Bone develops directly from mesenchymal tissue (e.g., flat bones of the skull).
- Endochondral Ossification: Bone forms by replacing hyaline cartilage (e.g., long bones).
-
Bone Growth
- Appositional Growth: Increase in bone thickness due to the addition of new bone tissue.
- Interstitial Growth: Increase in bone length during childhood and adolescence.
7.3 Sutures and Fontanelles
- Sutures: Immovable joints between the bones of the skull, held together by fibrous connective tissue. Examples include coronal, sagittal, lambdoid, and squamous sutures.
- Fontanelles: Soft spots on an infant's skull where bones have not yet fused. They allow for growth of the brain and skull during early development. Types include anterior, posterior, sphenoidal, and mastoid.
7.4 Types and Function of Bones
- Long Bones: Longer than wide; provide support and facilitate movement (e.g., femur, humerus).
- Short Bones: Cube-shaped; provide stability and support (e.g., carpals, tarsals).
- Flat Bones: Thin and flat; protect organs and provide surface area for muscle attachment (e.g., skull, ribs).
- Irregular Bones: Complex shapes; protect internal organs (e.g., vertebrae, pelvic bones).
- Sesamoid Bones: Embedded within tendons; protect tendons from wear and tear (e.g., patella).
7.5 Classification of Skeleton
- Axial Skeleton: Components: Skull, vertebral column, rib cage. Function: Supports the head, neck, and trunk, and protects the brain, spinal cord, and thoracic organs.
- Appendicular Skeleton. Components: Limbs (arms and legs) and girdles (pectoral and pelvic girdles). Function: Facilitates movement and supports limbs.
7.6 Types and Function of Joints
- Fixed (Synarthroses): Immovable joints (e.g., sutures of the skull).
- Cartilaginous (Amphiarthroses): Slightly movable joints (e.g., intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis).
- Synovial (Diarthroses): Freely movable joints with a fluid-filled cavity (e.g., knee, shoulder).
- Mechanism of Joint Movement & Lever Principles: Joints act as fulcrums, bones as levers, and muscles provide the force. Types of Levers include first, second, and third class levers.
7.7 Types/Structure/Functions of Teeth
- Types of teeth: Temporary (deciduous) and Permanent.
- Structure of teeth: Crown, Root, Enamel, Dentin, Pulp.
- Functions: Mastication – breaking down food into smaller particles for digestion.
7.8 Types of Movement of Bones
- Types of Sinuses -Frontal Sinus -Sphenoid Sinus -Ethmoid Sinus -Maxillary Sinus
- Disorders -Osteoporosis, Rickets, Osteomalacia, Osteomyelitis, Paget's Disease, Bone Tumors
8.1 Structure and Function of Different Parts of Respiratory Organs
-
Nose and Nasal Cavity
- Structure: External nose (nasal bones, cartilage), internal nasal cavity divided by the nasal septum.
- Function: Filters, warms, and moistens inhaled air; contains olfactory receptors for smell.
-
Sinuses
- Structure: Air-filled cavities in the skull (frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, maxillary).
- Function: Lighten the weight of the skull, enhance voice resonance, and produce mucus.
-
Pharynx
- Structure: Muscular tube divided into nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx.
- Function: Passageway for air and food, involved in speech production.
-
Larynx
-
Structure: Voice box located below the pharynx, contains vocal cords
-
Function: Produces sound (phonation), protects the trachea from food aspiration, and provides a passage for air
-
Trachea
- Structure: A rigid, tube-like structure extending from the larynx to the bronchi, lined with ciliated epithelium.
-
Function: Provides a clear airway for air to enter and exit the lungs; lined with ciliated epithelium to trap debris
-
Lungs
- Structure: Paired organs within the thoracic cavity consisting of lobes (three in the right lung, two in the left).
- Function: Site of gas exchange; oxygenates blood and removes carbon dioxide.
-
Bronchi and Bronchioles
- Structure: The trachea branches into the right and left main bronchi, which further divide into secondary and tertiary bronchi, eventually leading to bronchioles.
- Function: Distribute air to the alveoli; bronchioles control airflow to different parts of the lung.
-
Alveoli
- Structure: Tiny air sacs at the end of the bronchioles.
- Function: Site of gas exchange between air and blood.
8.2 Respiratory Muscles
- Intercostal Muscles
- Structure: Muscles located between the ribs (external and internal intercostals).
- Function: Aid in expanding and contracting the thoracic cavity during breathing.
- Diaphragm
- Structure: A dome-shaped muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity.
- Function: Primary muscle of respiration; contracts to increase thoracic cavity volume and draw air into the lungs; relaxes to decrease thoracic volume and expel air.
8.3 Physiology of Respiration
- External Respiration: Exchange of gases between alveoli and blood in the pulmonary capillaries. Oxygen moves from alveoli to blood, and carbon dioxide from blood to alveoli.
- Internal Respiration: Exchange of gases between blood and body tissues. Oxygen from blood to tissues, and carbon dioxide from tissues to blood.
- Exchange of Gases: Occurs by diffusion; oxygen diffuses from areas of higher concentration (alveoli or blood) to lower concentration (blood or tissues); and carbon dioxide diffuses in the opposite direction.
- Respiration in Relation to Boyle's Law: States pressure of a gas is inversely proportional to its volume (P1V1 = P2V2).
8.4 Capacity of Lung
- Tidal Volume (TV): The amount of air inhaled or exhaled during normal breathing (approximately 500 mL).
- Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV): The maximum amount of air that can be inhaled after a normal inspiration (approximately 3000 mL).
- Inspiratory Capacity (IC): The total amount of air that can be inhaled after a normal exhalation (TV + IRV, approximately 3500 mL).
- Functional Residual Capacity (FRC): The amount of air remaining in the lungs after a normal exhalation (ERV + RV, approximately 2500 mL)
- Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV): The maximum amount of air that can be exhaled after a normal expiration (approximately 1200 mL).
- Residual Volume (RV): The amount of air remaining in the lungs after a maximal exhalation (approximately 1200 mL).
9.1 Digestion
- Digestion: A process of breaking down food into smaller, absorbable components.
- Digestive System: A complex system of organs and glands responsible for processing food, extracting nutrients, and expelling waste. This includes stages of Ingestion, Propulsion, Mechanical digestion, Chemical Digestion, Absorption, and Elimination.
9.2 Structure and Function of Digestive Organs
- Mouth: Includes oral cavity, teeth, tongue, and performs both mechanical and chemical digestion.
- Esophagus: A muscular tube connecting the mouth to the stomach that transports food and liquids via peristalsis.
- Stomach: A hollow organ with a lining of gastric mucosa; performs mechanical and chemical digestion converting food to chyme.
- Small Intestine: Composed of duodenum, jejunum, and ileum; completes digestion and absorbs nutrients into the bloodstream.
- Large Intestine: Includes cecum, colon, and rectum. Absorbs water and electrolytes from indigestible food residues.
- Rectum: Stores feces until elimination.
- Anus: Controls expulsion of feces.
9.3 Structure and Function of Accessory Organs
- Salivary Glands: Produce saliva containing enzymes to begin carbohydrate digestion.
- Pancreas: Produces digestive enzymes (e.g., lipase, protease, amylase) and bicarbonate, neutralizes stomach acid. Also have endocrine functions—producing insulin and glucagon to regulate blood glucose levels.
- Liver: Produces bile to aid in fat digestion and absorption. Processes nutrients, detoxifies harmful substances, and stores vitamins and minerals.
- Biliary Duct: Transports bile from the liver and gallbladder to the duodenum.
9.4 Types, Structure, and Functions of Teeth
- Temporary (Deciduous) Teeth: First set of teeth, typically 20.
- Permanent Teeth: Second set of teeth that typically includes 32.
- Functions: Aid in chewing and speech development in children
9.5 Functions of Digestive System
- Digestion: Break down food into smaller, absorbable components.
- Absorption: Uptake of nutrients into the bloodstream or lymphatic system from the digestive tract.
9.6 Physiology of Digestion
- Overview: Ingestion, propulsion, mechanical and chemical digestion, absorption, and elimination
- Ingestion
- Propulsion: Swallowing and peristalsis
- Mechanical digestion, e.g., chewing and churning
- Chemical Digestion
- Absorption in the small intestine
- Elimination
10.1 Structure and Function of Organs Related to the Urinary System
- Kidney
- Structure: Paired organs located in the lower back, shaped like beans, with an outer cortex, an inner medulla, and renal pelvis.
- Function: Filters blood to remove waste products and excess substances, regulates blood pressure and acid-base balance. Produces urine.
- Ureter
- Structure: Tubular structures extending from renal pelvis to the bladder; about 25-30 cm long.
- Function: Transports urine from kidneys to the bladder through peristaltic movements.
- Urinary Bladder
- Structure: Hollow, muscular organ located in the pelvic cavity with a distensible wall.
- Function: Stores urine until elimination.
- Urethra
- Structure: A tube extending from the bladder to the exterior of the body, in males also serves as a passage for semen.
- Function: conveys urine
10.2 Composition and Mechanism of Urine Formation
- Glomerular Filtration: The blood is filtered through the glomeruli to form a filtrate (glomerular filtrate). Blood pressure forces Water and small molecules into Bowman's capsule.
- Selective Reabsorption: The kidneys reabsorb necessary substances (essential nutrients, electrolytes, water) from the filtrate into the blood, while waste products remain in the filtrate. This occurs mainly in the proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule, and collecting ducts.
- Tubular Secretion: Additional substances are secreted from the blood into the tubular fluid. This process occurs mainly in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting ducts, where kidneys secrete substances such as hydrogen ions, potassium, and certain drugs.
10.3 Mechanism of Micturition
- Filling Phase: The bladder fills with urine, stretching its walls. Stretch receptors send signals to the brain.
- Urge to Void: The urge to urinate becomes strong as the bladder fills further.
- Micturition Reflex: The detrusor muscle (bladder wall muscle) contracts. The internal urethral sphincter relaxes and urine flows into the urethra.
11.1 Introduction, Nerve, Neuroglia, Synapse, Nerve Transmission
- Nerve
- Definition: A bundle of axons (nerve fibers) transmitting electrical impulses throughout the body, composed of sensory, motor, or mixed fibers.
- Neuroglia
- Definition: Glial cells providing structural and metabolic support to neurons. Include astrocytes, microglia, oligodendrocytes (CNS), and Schwann cells (PNS).
- Synapse: A junction between two neurons or a neuron and another cell (e.g., muscle, gland) where nerve impulses are transmitted.
- Nerve Transmission: Involves the propagation of an action potential along a neuron and the release of neurotransmitters at synapses to transmit signals to other neurons or target cells.
11.2 Types of Nerves
- Sensory (Afferent) Nerves: Carry impulses from sensory receptors to the central nervous system (CNS).
- Motor (Efferent) Nerves: Transmit impulses from the CNS to muscles or glands.
- Mixed Nerves: Contain both sensory and motor fibers, allowing two-way communication.
11.3 Mechanism of Stimuli Transmission
- Stimulation generates an action potential. Alteration of the resting membrane potential in a neuron. Impulse travels along the neuron and across synapses through neurotransmitter release. This transmits signals to adjacent neurons, muscles, or glands.
11.4 The Central Nervous System (CNS)
-
Covering Membranes (Meninges): Three protective layers: dura mater (outermost), arachnoid mater (middle), and pia mater (innermost).
-
Cerebrum
- Structure: Largest part of the brain, divided into two hemispheres with four lobes (frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital).
- Function: Higher brain functions including sensory perception, voluntary motor actions, reasoning, learning, memory, and emotions.
-
Midbrain
- Structure: Part of the brainstem located between the diencephalon and the pons.
- Function: Involved in visual and auditory processing and motor control.
-
Cerebellum:
- Structure: Located at the back of the brain, beneath the occipital lobes.
- Function: Coordinates voluntary movements, balance, posture, and motor learning.
-
Brainstem
- Structure: Consists of the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata
- Function: Controls basic life functions such as heart rate, breathing, and sleep cycles.
11.5 The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
- Spinal Nerves: 31 pairs of nerves arising from the spinal cord, responsible for transmitting sensory and motor information.
- Cranial Nerves: 12 pairs of nerves originating from the brain controlling functions related to head, neck, and thoracic and abdominal cavities.
- Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
- Structure: Subdivided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems
- Function: Regulates involuntary body functions.
11.6 Neurons
- Mechanisms of Stimuli Transmission in the Nervous System
- Reflex Action: A rapid, automatic response to a stimulus bypassing the brain for immediate action via the spinal cord.
- CNS - Brain and Spinal Cord: Processes information and coordinates complex functions via the spinal cord (pathway between brain and body) and facilitates reflexes.
- PNS - Spinal Cord and Cranial Nerves: Connects CNS to limbs and organs—relaying sensory and motor signals.
- ANS - Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Systems: Regulates involuntary body functions.
12.1 Female Reproductive Organs
- External Reproductive Organs
- Vulva: Includes labia majora, labia minora, clitoris, and vestibule.
- Function: Protect inner structures of the vulva; highly sensitive structures involved in sexual arousal.
- Internal Reproductive Organs
- Ovaries: Small, almond-shaped that produce ova (eggs) and secrete hormones.
- Fallopian Tubes: Tubes extending from the uterus to the ovaries; transport the ovum from the ovary to the uterus and are the site of fertilization
- Uterus
- Structure: Pear-shaped organ where a fertilized egg implants and grows into a fetus. Composed of the endometrium (inner lining), myometrium (muscular layer), and perimetrium (outer layer).
- Cervix: The lower part of the uterus that opens into the vagina; serves as a passage for sperm and menstrual blood.
- Vagina: A muscular canal connecting the cervix to the vulva; serves as the birth canal.
12.2 Primary and Secondary Sex Characteristics
- Primary: Ovaries and other reproductive organs.
- Secondary: Breast development, pubic and axillary hair growth, widening of hips, and onset of menstruation.
- Mechanisms: Puberty (process of physical changes), Menstrual Cycle (monthly cycle involving the preparation of the uterus)
12.3 and 13.1, 13.2 Hormones and Endocrine Glands
- Introduction to endocrine glands, their hormones
- Hypothalamus
- Pituitary Gland
- Thyroid Gland
- Parathyroid Glands
- Adrenal Glands
- Pancreas
- Pineal Gland
- Gonads (Ovaries and Testes) and their functions.
13, 13.3 Male and Female Sex Hormones
- Estrogen: Produced by ovaries and regulate menstrual cycle and secondary sexual characteristics in females,.
- Progesterone: Produced by ovaries (corpus luteum), placenta to prepare the endometrium for implantation.
- Testosterone: Produced by testes in males and regulates sperm production, male secondary sexual characteristics, and libido.
14.1 Structure and Function of Skin
- Structure: Epidermis, Dermis, Hypodermis (Subcutaneous Layer)
- Functions: Sensation, Regulation of Body Temperature, Protection, Immunity, Excretion
14.2 Sensory Organ: Eye
- Location, Structure (External Parts; Sclera, Cornea, Middle Layer; Choroid, Iris, Pupil; Inner Layer; Retina), Visual Pathways, and Eye Accommodations.
14.3 Structure and Function of Ear
Location, Structure of each part of the ear (Outer; Pinna, Ear Canal; Middle; Tympanic Membrane, Ossicles; Inner; Cochlea, Semicircular Canals), Visual Pathway
14.4 Nose and Throat
- Nose: Structure (external nostrils, nasal cavity, and sinuses), Function (filters, warms, and humidifies inhaled air; olfactory receptors).
- Throat (Pharynx): Structure (muscular tube), Function (passageway for air and food; role in vocalization.
14.5 Tongue
- Structure (muscular organ covered with mucous membrane, taste buds), Function (chewing, swallowing, speech; taste perception).
Studying That Suits You
Use AI to generate personalized quizzes and flashcards to suit your learning preferences.
Related Documents
Description
Test your knowledge on various types of tissues and their functions, as well as muscle types and their roles in the body. This quiz covers topics such as meiosis, connective tissue, and the muscular system. Challenge yourself to see how well you understand these biological concepts.
