Biology Chapter Quiz: Cell & Human Systems

Genetics and Biology Study Notes

• Terms to Know:

  • Dichotomous Key: Identifies organisms based on a series of choices.
  • Taxonomy: Science of classifying organisms.
  • Binomial Nomenclature: Two-part scientific name (genus and species, italicized).
  • Peptidoglycan: Cell wall component in most bacteria.
  • Gram Positive: Bacteria with thick peptidoglycan walls, retaining stain.
  • Gram Negative: Bacteria with thin peptidoglycan and outer membrane, not retaining stain.
  • Heterotroph: Obtain energy by consuming other organisms.
  • Photoautotroph: Use light energy to synthesize food.
  • Photoheterotroph: Use light for energy, but need other carbon sources
  • Chemoheterotroph: Obtain energy by oxidizing environmental molecules
  • Adaptation: Trait enhancing survival and reproduction.
  • Variation: Differences within a species.
  • Fitness: Ability to survive and reproduce.
  • Clade: Group including a common ancestor and all descendants.
  • Survival of the Fittest: Individuals better adapted survive and reproduce.
  • Homologous Structure: Similar structures in different species, shared ancestry.
  • Analogous Structure: Similar structures in different species, similar functions, but not shared ancestry.
  • Vestigial Structure: Structures with reduced or lost function.
  • Artificial Selection: Human-directed breeding for desired traits.
  • Gene Pool: All genetic diversity in a population.
  • Microevolution: Small-scale changes within a species.
  • Macroevolution: Large-scale changes resulting in new species.
  • Genetic Drift: Random changes in allele frequencies in a population.
  • Bottleneck Effect: Population size reduction.
  • Founder Effect: Small group forms a new population.
  • Speciation: Formation of new species.
  • Coevolution: Two species evolve in response to each other.
  • Mimicry: One species evolves to resemble another.
  • Derived Characteristic: Trait evolved in a clade's recent common ancestor.
  • Prokaryote: Organism without a nucleus.
  • Eukaryote: Organism with a nucleus.
  • Anaerobic: Living without oxygen.
  • Aerobic: Living with oxygen.
  • Convergent Evolution: Unrelated species evolve similar traits.
  • Divergent Evolution: Related species evolve different traits.
  • Phylogeny: Evolutionary history of a species.
  • Bipedal Motion: Walking on two feet.
  • Cumulative Selection: Accumulation of advantageous mutations.
  • Era: Major division of geologic time.
  • Period: Division within an era.
  • Nutrient: Substances for energy, growth & bodily functions.
  • Enzyme: Protein speeding up chemical reactions.
  • Vitamin: Organic compound essential for nutrition.
  • Mineral: Inorganic element needed for body processes.
  • Calorie: Unit of energy in food.
  • Nutraceutical: Food with health benefits.
  • Functional Food: Food with added health benefits.
    • Probiotic: Live beneficial bacteria in food/supplements.
    • Physical Digestion: Food broken into smaller pieces (e.g., chewing).
    • Chemical Digestion: Food broken down into simpler molecules (e.g., enzymes).
    • Bolus: Chewed food ready to swallow.
    • Chyme: Food mixed with digestive juices.
    • Peristalsis: Wave-like muscle contractions.
    • Sphincter: Circular muscles controlling passage.
    • Rugae: Folds in the stomach lining.
    • Villi: Projections absorbing nutrients in the small intestine.
    • Lymph Vessel: Transporting lymph for fat absorption.
    • Bile: Digestive fluid produced by the liver to break down fats.
    • Glycogen: Stored form of glucose.
    • Glucose: Simple sugar for energy.
    • Cellular Respiration: Process converting glucose to energy.
    • Open System: Blood not always contained in vessels (e.g., some invertebrates).
    • Closed System: Blood contained within vessels (e.g., vertebrates).
    • Cardiovascular System: Heart and blood vessels.
    • Hemoglobin: Protein in red blood cells transporting oxygen.
    • Fibrin: Protein involved in blood clotting.
    • Diffusion: Movement of molecules from high to low concentration.
    • Diffusion Gradient: Difference in concentration across a space.
    • Lymph: Fluid in lymphatic system.
    • Pacemaker: Regulates heartbeat.
    • Systolic Pressure: Pressure during heart contraction.
    • Diastolic Pressure: Pressure during heart relaxation.
    • Plaque: Buildup in arteries.
    • Cholesterol: Lipid in cell membranes.
    • HDL/LDL: Types of cholesterol (good/bad).
    • Blood Pressure: Force of blood against artery walls.
    • Plasma: Liquid portion of blood, mostly water.
    • RBC (Erythrocytes): Carry oxygen.
    • WBC (Leukocytes): Fight infection.
    • Platelets: Helper in blood clotting.
    • Arteries: Carry blood away from the heart.
    • Veins: Carry blood to the heart.
    • Capillaries: Exchange substances with tissues.

• Respiratory System:

  • Gills: Respiratory organ in fish.
  • Tracheal Systems: Found in insects.
  • Lungs: Main respiratory organs in humans
  • Cilia: Hair-like structures moving mucus

• Cell Cycle, Mitosis & Meiosis:

  • DNA: Molecule holding genetic information.
  • Chromosome: DNA and protein structures holding genetic info.
  • Nucleosome: DNA wrapped around histones.
  • Nucleotide: Building block of DNA & RNA.
  • Histone: Protein DNA wraps around.
  • Purine: A & G, two-ring nitrogenous bases.
  • Pyrimidine: T, C, U, single-ring nitrogenous bases.
  • Centromere: Chromosome attachment point for sister chromatids.
  • Spindle Fibre: Separates chromosomes during cell division.
  • Centrioles: Organize spindle fibers.
  • Equatorial Plate: Plane where chromosomes align in metaphase.

• Mendelian Genetics:

  • Monohybrid: Cross involving one trait.
  • Dihybrid: Cross involving two traits.
  • Test Cross: Determining genotype of dominant phenotype.
  • Phenotype: Observable trait.
  • Genotype: Genetic makeup.
  • Homozygous: Two identical alleles.
  • Heterozygous: Two different alleles.
  • Incomplete Dominance: Blend of traits in heterozygotes.
  • Sex-Linked Traits: Traits on sex chromosomes.
  • Codominance: Both alleles are fully expressed.
  • Multiple Alleles: More than two alleles for a gene.
  • Recessive: Expressed only in homozygous condition.
  • Dominant: Expressed in both homozygous and heterozygous.

Additional Notes

• Bacteria: classified by shape (cocci, bacilli, spirilla), arrangement and cell wall structure (Gram positive/negative), respiration type (aerobes/anaerobes) and nutritional mode (autotrophs/heterotrophs).

• Bacteria Reproduction: Asexual (binary fission), and genetic exchange (conjugation).

• Viruses: Non-living, composed of a protective protein coat and genetic material (DNA or RNA). Reproduce by infecting host cells. Distinguished by lytic (immediate reproduction and cell lysis) or lysogenic (latent infection) cycle replication strategies.

• Organism Variation: The variation in organisms exists globally (similar environments, different species), locally (different habitats within a region, different species), and over time (fossil record).

• Scientists' Contributions: Key figures (Hutton, Lyell, Lamarck, Darwin) and their contributions to evolutionary thought.

• Evidence for Evolution: Fossils, biogeography, comparative anatomy, molecular biology, and embryology are considered evidence for evolution.

• Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium: A theoretical model of genetic equilibrium in populations requiring no mutation, random mating, no gene flow, infinite population size, and no selection, which is rarely observed in real-world populations.

• Microevolution Mechanisms: Natural Selection (stabilizing, directional, disruptive), Sexual Selection, and Genetic Drift.

• Reproductive Barriers: Pre-zygotic (temporal isolation) and Post-zygotic (hybrid infertility).

• Evolutionary Patterns: Convergent (unrelated species evolve similar traits), Divergent (related species evolve different traits), Gradualism (slow, steady change) and Punctuated Equilibrium (rapid change after long periods of stability).

• Geologic Time Scale: Eras and periods, currently in the Cenozoic Era and the Quaternary Period.

• Cladogram: Diagram showing evolutionary relationships based on shared derived characteristics.

• Human Evolution: Evolution from primates, including stages like Australopithecus, Homo habilis, Homo erectus, and Homo sapiens.

Test your knowledge on various biological concepts related to cell biology and human systems with this quiz. Covering topics from respiration to genetics, this quiz will challenge your understanding of important definitions and processes. Perfect for students studying biology at any level.