Biology Chapter on Sexual Reproduction
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Questions and Answers

A sexual reproduction process can lead to a haploid zygote as an immediate outcome of meiosis.

False (B)

Anisogamy refers to the condition where haploid reproductive cells are identical in size.

False (B)

Sexual reproduction is advantageous for speeding up adaptation in changing environments.

True (A)

The two-fold cost of sex indicates that sexual reproduction allows an individual to pass on all of its genetic material.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The life cycle of an organism refers specifically to the stages in its nutritional habits.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The fusion of gametes results in the formation of haploid individuals.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Sexual reproduction can eliminate deleterious alleles from a population over generations.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Most sperm cells from angiosperms are flagellated.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Angiosperms make up approximately 90% of all living plant species.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The carpel of a flower is a modified leaf that produces the microgametophyte.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Pollination in angiosperms requires water for the transfer of sperm to the female egg.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Sequoia sempervirens refers to the Aleppo pine species.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Anopheles gambiae has a diploid life cycle.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Individuals with sickle cell anemia have a survival disadvantage in regions where malaria is prevalent.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Meiosis occurs within the sporozoites of Plasmodium falciparum.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Dinoflagellates can cause 'Red tide' through explosive population growth.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The 'S' allele provides a higher frequency of Plasmodium falciparum infection.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Bioluminescence in dinoflagellates is a result of the production and emission of light.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Heterozygote advantage increases the frequency of the 'A' allele in malaria-endemic regions.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Oocysts are involved in the fertilization process of Plasmodium falciparum.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Changes in temperatures and water pollution can trigger the population growth of dinoflagellates.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Mutations in the CLV3 gene decrease flower number in Arabidopsis.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The apical meristem is responsible for differentiating and determining cell identity based on genetic programming alone.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The WUS gene is responsible for promoting stem cell proliferation in plants.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Plants are incapable of responding to environmental factors like light and nutrients due to their lack of movement.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The CLV3-WUS signaling pathway plays a critical role in coordinating stem cell proliferation and differentiation.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Irregular shoot formation in Arabidopsis can result from mutations in the WUS gene.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A negative feedback loop exists between CLV3 and WUS regarding cell differentiation and proliferation.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Indeterminate growth in plants means that their growth is entirely predetermined by genetic factors.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The primary role of roots is to maximize exposure to sunlight and CO2.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Growth and cell identity in plants depends solely on the cell line of origin.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Bryophytes are a monophyletic group of all non-vascular plants.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Plasticity in plant architecture refers to the ability to adapt growth based on resource availability.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The life cycle of Bryophytes is dominated by sporophytes.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Marchantia polymorpha can reproduce asexually through gemmae.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Tracheophytes are characterized by their presence of specialized tissues that transport water and nutrients.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In bryophytes, rhizoids are responsible for the absorption of water and minerals.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Water is essential for both spore germination and sperm cell swimming in bryophytes.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Vascularization in plants allows for the equal distribution of sunlight, CO2, nutrients, and H2O.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The gametophyte stage in tracheophytes is larger and more complex than the sporophyte stage.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Cells positioned in different environments do not affect plant growth and identity.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Sexual Reproduction

A type of reproduction involving the fusion of gametes (haploid reproductive cells) from two parents to create a diploid offspring.

Asexual Reproduction

A type of reproduction where a single parent produces genetically identical offspring by dividing.

Anisogamy

A type of sexual reproduction where the gametes differ in size and structure.

Diploid (2n)

A cell or organism containing two sets of chromosomes.

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Haploid (n)

A cell or organism containing one set of chromosomes.

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Two-fold cost of sex

The disadvantage of sexual reproduction where one sex (often males) does not contribute to the offspring's nutrients.

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Life Cycle

A sequence of stages in an organism's reproductive history. It reflects how the organism generates offspring in each generation

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Anopheles gambiae life cycle

The life cycle of a mosquito that carries malaria parasites.

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Plasmodium falciparum life cycle

The life cycle of the malaria parasite inside the mosquito and human host.

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Sickle cell anemia

A genetic condition causing misshapen red blood cells, offering protection against malaria.

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β-globin

A protein component of hemoglobin, with a mutated form (S) linked to sickle cell anemia.

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Heterozygote advantage

Individuals with one copy of a mutated gene (e.g., sickle cell) can have better survival than those with two copies of the normal gene.

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Red tide

A harmful algal bloom caused by rapid population growth of dinoflagellates.

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Dinoflagellates

A type of protist with two flagella, responsible, in high concentrations, for red tides.

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Bioluminescence

The ability of some organisms to produce and emit light.

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Malaria relative survival

Survival rate of those with sickle cell anemia compared to those without is better in regions with high malaria incidence

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Angiosperms

Flowering plants that produce seeds enclosed in an ovary, which matures into fruit.

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Flower Structure

Modified leaves specialized for reproduction in angiosperms, with carpels (female) and stamens (male).

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Pollination (Angiosperms)

Transfer of pollen to the female part of a flower, independent of water.

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Gymnosperm Sperm

Usually non-flagellated sperm cells in gymnosperms (exception: Ginkgo).

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Fruit Role

Mature ovary of a flower that aids in seed dispersal.

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Indeterminate Growth

Plant growth that is not predetermined and continues throughout the plant's life.

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Apical Meristem

Region of plant stem cells at the tips of roots and shoots, responsible for growth and development.

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CLV3-WUS pathway

Signaling pathway that coordinates stem cell proliferation and differentiation in plants.

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Plant Plasticity

Plants' ability to change their growth and development based on environmental conditions.

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CLV3 gene

Gene that promotes plant stem cell differentiation.

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WUS gene

Gene that promotes plant stem cell proliferation.

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Negative feedback loop (CLV3-WUS)

A regulatory mechanism where the product of one process inhibits that same process or a related one.

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Resource Maximization (Plants)

Plants constantly try to maximize the absorption of nutrients, water, sunlight, and CO2 from their environment.

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Stem Cell Proliferation and Differentiation

The process where stem cells rapidly multiply and transform into specialized cells in a plant in response to developmental signals.

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Cell's Relative Positioning

The factors that dictate the function of plant cell that dictates the function that a cell performs and its fate.

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Bryophytes

A paraphyletic group of non-vascular plants that do not produce seeds or flowers and lack specialized water/nutrient transport tissues.

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Gametophyte Dominance

In bryophytes, the gametophyte stage of the plant life cycle is larger and more prominent than the sporophyte stage.

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Rhizoids

Filament-like structures in bryophytes that anchor the plant but do not absorb water or nutrients.

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Vascularization

The presence of lignified tissues (like vessels) in plants allowing for the transport of water, nutrients, and sugars.

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Tracheophytes

Vascular plants (monophyletic group) with life cycles dominated by the sporophyte stage.

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Sporophyte

The diploid phase in a plant life cycle, generally larger and more complex than the gametophyte phase in vascular plants.

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Cell Positioning

Growth and cell identity in plants are strongly affected by the relative positions of cells.

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Environmental Factors

External conditions (e.g., light, water, nutrients, hormones) impact plant growth and cell identity.

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Gemmae

Specialized cell buds for asexual reproduction in Marchantia polymorpha (a bryophyte).

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Water Dependence (bryophytes)

Spore germination and sperm cell swimming in bryophytes require water.

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Study Notes

Topic 8: The Tree of Life

  • Life on Earth uses carbon (C), oxygen (O), hydrogen (H), and nitrogen (N) in organic molecules such as carbohydrates, proteins, fatty acids, and nucleic acids
  • The seven properties of life are: cellular organization, energy and metabolism, reproduction, heredity and evolution, growth and development, regulation and homeostasis, and response to stimuli
  • Viruses are not considered living organisms because they lack cellular organization, internal metabolism, growth, and development
  • The age of the universe is 13.8 billion years, the age of Earth is 4.6 billion years, and the first direct evidence of life is 3.5 billion years
  • Fossils are preserved remnants or impressions of past organisms. Stromatolites are layered rocks formed by photosynthetic prokaryotes. First evidence of life was found in Stromatolites.
  • Stanley Miller's experiment (1953) showed that organic molecules (amino acids, etc.) can form from inorganic compounds under early Earth conditions.
  • Protocells are precursors to cells, arising from the packaging of organic molecules.
  • RNA molecules can function as catalysts (ribozymes) and self-replicate
  • The fossil record provides evidence for the evolution of organisms. Methods for dating fossils include relative dating and radiometric dating
  • The Burgess Shale is a fossil site that has significantly contributed to the understanding of animal evolution.
  • Mass extinctions are periods of dramatic ecological change.
  • Adaptive radiations are periods of rapid diversification that follow mass extinctions.
  • The Tree of Life describes the evolutionary relationships between all organisms (living and extinct). Similarities in morphology, anatomy, or genetic sequences are used to group species together. This tree is constantly refined with new data.
  • Geological data helps to determine the relative and absolute ages of rock layers, and correlate them to fossils that are found. This gives further information regarding the evolution of organisms over time
  • Biostratigraphy uses the characteristic fossil composition of different time periods to understand the chronological order of geological strata. Foraminifera is an example of a good biological marker for short time periods of geological history due to their widespread distribution.
  • Radiometric dating uses changes in the isotope composition of magmatic rocks to determine absolute ages, but not suitable for sedimentary rocks.
  • The fossil record is often incomplete due to the destruction of fossils over time, and biases towards species with hard shells
  • The three domains of life are Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya
  • The last universal common ancestor (LUCA) is the most recent common ancestor to all living organisms. Some of LUCA's genes were likely present in the original genome of LUCA
  • The Tree of Life is a constantly changing understanding of evolutionary relationships between living organisms, based on the latest data analysis

Topic 9: Bacteria and Archaea

  • 750,000 species of bacteria are estimated (though many are still undiscovered).
  • Prokaryotes are a paraphyletic group
  • Prokaryotes lack a nucleus, membrane-bound organelles, and have a circular chromosome located in the nucleoid region. Prokaryotic DNA is often circular and less complex.
  • Characteristics of prokaryotic cells include: plasma membrane, cytoplasm, circular chromosome, fimbriae, capsule, and absence of organelles
  • Bacteria are classified into Gram-positive and Gram-negative based on cell wall structure. Gram-negative bacteria tend to be more resistant to water-soluble antibiotics.
  • Prokaryotes can reproduce asexually through binary fission or through horizontal transfer via conjugation, transduction, or transformation.
  • Prokaryotes can evolve rapidly due to mutations and horizontal gene transfer
  • Prokaryotes are crucial for nutrient cycling and have a crucial role in many ecosystems.
  • Nutritional requirements vary based on the source of carbon and energy (photoautotrophs, photoheterotrophs, chemoautotrophs, chemoheterotrophs)

Topic 10: Eukaryotes

  • Eukaryotes have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. They are more complex than prokaryotes
  • The major characteristics of eukaryotes are: eukaryotes have a nucleus, membrane-bound compartments (organelles which have specialised functions), a cytoskeleton which gives the cell its shape, cytosol (fluid inside the cell, which contains everything within the cell excluding the nucleus and organelles), and a plasma membrane which controls what enters and leaves the cell
  • Endosymbiosis is a process where one organism lives within another to both organisms' mutual benefit. A specific example of this is mitochondria and chloroplasts
  • The three domains of life are Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya
  • The evolution of multicellularity occurred repeatedly and separately in different lineages of eukaryotes.
  • The different types of life cycles are: apolontic, diplontic, and haplo-diplontic
  • There is great diversity among eukaryotes.
  • Eukaryotes include protists, fungi, plants, and animals, and can be characterized in different ways such as nutrition (photoautotrophs, heterotrophs, mixotrophs) and reproduction (asexual and sexual)

Topic 11: The Evolution of Plants

  • Plants are a monophyletic group
  • Plants are also eukaryotes
  • Plants are photoautotrophs
  • Plant cells walls contain cellulose
  • Plants have chloroplasts for photosynthesis. They contain Chlorophylls to capture light energy
  • Plants have vascular systems for water and nutrient transport, and stomata for gas exchange
  • Plants are divided into nonvascular and vascular plants
  • The earliest plants were nonvascular (bryophytes) that colonized land around 470 million years ago. Bryophytes require water for reproduction.
  • Seed plants (spermatophytes) are a group of plants that evolved specialized structures (e.g., seeds and pollen) for reproduction in dry terrestrial environments.
  • Angiosperms are flowering plants. They evolved seed plants around 300-500 mya. Their reproductive strategies are particularly advanced.
  • Plants have indeterminate growth, with the ability to continuously grow over time due to meristems (undifferentiated plant cells)

Topic 12: The Evolution of Animals I

  • Animals are a monophyletic group of eukaryotes characterized by multicellularity, heterotrophy, and (typically) movement.
  • Animals are mostly multicellular
  • Animals have specific requirements that differentiate them from plants such as heterotrophy, movement, and sexual reproduction
  • Animals are divided into different phyla that vary in characteristics such as body plans, embryogenesis and other aspects of biology
  • Animals have different body plans, including radial and bilateral symmetry, which influence different features of their morphology. All these body plans have different features to allow for the survival of an animal in its environment
  • Hox genes are regulatory genes that control the placement and organization of body parts in animals
  • Some animals exhibit larval stages in their life cycle
  • The three domains of life are Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya
  • Asexual and sexual reproduction are the two major strategies for animal reproduction
  • Different types of reproduction include budding, fragmentation, and parthenogenesis

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Explore the fascinating world of sexual reproduction in this quiz, which covers key concepts such as meiosis, gamete formation, and the advantages of sexual reproduction. Test your knowledge on angiosperms and their reproductive processes, including pollination and the life cycle of plants.

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