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Questions and Answers
What is a key feature of asexual reproduction?
What is a key feature of asexual reproduction?
During which phase of mitosis do chromatids get pulled apart?
During which phase of mitosis do chromatids get pulled apart?
What is the main outcome of meiosis?
What is the main outcome of meiosis?
What defines homologous chromosomes?
What defines homologous chromosomes?
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Which process occurs during interphase?
Which process occurs during interphase?
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In which phase of meiosis do tetrads align at the metaphase plate?
In which phase of meiosis do tetrads align at the metaphase plate?
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What happens during Telophase 1 of meiosis?
What happens during Telophase 1 of meiosis?
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What is the primary goal of mitosis?
What is the primary goal of mitosis?
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What is the primary difference between haploid and diploid cells?
What is the primary difference between haploid and diploid cells?
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Which of the following processes contributes most significantly to genetic diversity?
Which of the following processes contributes most significantly to genetic diversity?
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What type of mutation does a change in one base of a gene most likely indicate?
What type of mutation does a change in one base of a gene most likely indicate?
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Which of the following best describes nondisjunction?
Which of the following best describes nondisjunction?
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What occurs during the process known as conjugation in bacterial cells?
What occurs during the process known as conjugation in bacterial cells?
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Which type of chromosome mutation involves the reversal of a chromosome segment?
Which type of chromosome mutation involves the reversal of a chromosome segment?
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What type of reproduction does binary fission represent?
What type of reproduction does binary fission represent?
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Which of the following defines a mutagen?
Which of the following defines a mutagen?
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What is the significance of the 0.1% difference in DNA between two humans?
What is the significance of the 0.1% difference in DNA between two humans?
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What is recombinant DNA?
What is recombinant DNA?
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How do bacterial cells replicate recombinant plasmid DNA?
How do bacterial cells replicate recombinant plasmid DNA?
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What is the primary purpose of gene cloning?
What is the primary purpose of gene cloning?
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What technique is used to create openings in bacterial cell membranes for gene transfer?
What technique is used to create openings in bacterial cell membranes for gene transfer?
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What is codominance in genetics?
What is codominance in genetics?
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Which of the following describes traits influenced by multiple alleles?
Which of the following describes traits influenced by multiple alleles?
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What is a characteristic of sex-linked genes?
What is a characteristic of sex-linked genes?
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What is the primary function of a pedigree chart?
What is the primary function of a pedigree chart?
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What is an example of a pleiotropic effect?
What is an example of a pleiotropic effect?
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Which statement best describes epigenetics?
Which statement best describes epigenetics?
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How do environmental effects influence phenotypes?
How do environmental effects influence phenotypes?
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What distinguishes monogenetic traits from polygenetic traits?
What distinguishes monogenetic traits from polygenetic traits?
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What is the primary function of restriction enzymes?
What is the primary function of restriction enzymes?
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What happens to DNA that has been cut by a restriction enzyme?
What happens to DNA that has been cut by a restriction enzyme?
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Which technique is used to separate DNA molecules based on size and electrical charge?
Which technique is used to separate DNA molecules based on size and electrical charge?
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What is the purpose of Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)?
What is the purpose of Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)?
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Which machine is commonly used to automate the PCR process?
Which machine is commonly used to automate the PCR process?
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What does DNA sequencing determine?
What does DNA sequencing determine?
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What is the primary application of DNA fingerprinting?
What is the primary application of DNA fingerprinting?
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Why is it important to have a significant amount of DNA for analysis?
Why is it important to have a significant amount of DNA for analysis?
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What is the primary disadvantage of inbreeding in selective breeding?
What is the primary disadvantage of inbreeding in selective breeding?
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Which of the following best describes hybridization?
Which of the following best describes hybridization?
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What role do restriction enzymes play in genetic modification?
What role do restriction enzymes play in genetic modification?
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How is artificial selection different from natural selection?
How is artificial selection different from natural selection?
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Which isolation mechanism is primarily associated with breeding times?
Which isolation mechanism is primarily associated with breeding times?
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What is the purpose of selective breeding in agriculture?
What is the purpose of selective breeding in agriculture?
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Which of the following is NOT a cause of speciation?
Which of the following is NOT a cause of speciation?
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What is a potential consequence of increased homozygosity due to inbreeding?
What is a potential consequence of increased homozygosity due to inbreeding?
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Study Notes
Asexual Reproduction
- A type of reproduction involving only one genetic donor
- Produces clones (genetically identical offspring)
- Enables organisms to reproduce quickly without needing to find a mate
Sexual Reproduction
- A type of reproduction involving two genetic donors
- Involves fertilization of haploid gametes (sex cells)
- Results in genetically diverse offspring
Interphase
- The cell grows and DNA replicates
- Takes up most of the cell's life cycle
Mitosis
- Cell division in all cells except sex cells
- Goal is to make identical copies of cells
- Four phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase
- Followed by cytokinesis (cytoplasm division)
Chromosomes vs. Chromatids
- Chromatids make up chromosomes
- Chromatids are identical copies during mitosis
- Chromosomes are not identical if one is from the male parent and the other is from the female parent
Prophase
- Chromatin condenses into chromosomes
Metaphase
- Chromosomes align at the center of the cell
Anaphase
- Chromatids are pulled apart
Telophase
- Daughter chromosomes arrive at opposite poles/sides of the cell
Cytokinesis
- Cytoplasm divides
Meiosis
- A type of cell division producing four daughter cells
- Happens in sexually reproducing organisms
- Purpose is to create haploid cells (sex cells/gametes) from diploid cells
- Diploid cells have two sets of chromosomes; haploid cells have one
Meiosis PMAT 1 and PMAT 2
- Meiosis involves two rounds of cell division
- PMAT 1 involves homologous chromosome pairing and separation.
- PMAT 2 involves sister chromatid separation
Homologous Chromosomes
- Contain the same genes in the same order
- Have different sequences of bases
- One chromosome is donated by each parent
Haploid vs. Diploid Cells
- Haploid cells contain half the genetic information and half the number of chromosomes
- Diploid cells contain a full set of chromosomes
Crossing Over
- Homologous pairs exchange portions during tetrads formation
- Results in genetic diversity
Binary Fission
- Asexual reproduction method for bacterial cells
- Dividing into two cells
- Produces clones
Conjugation
- Bacterial cell reproduction involving transfer of genetic material through a pilus
Baeocyte
- Bacterial cell reproduction that produces many small cells
- Clones of the original cell (asexual)
Genome
- All of an organisms genetic material
Gene
- Segment of DNA on a chromosome
- Hundreds of genes on a chromosome
Homologous Chromosome
- Chromosomes same in length, centromere position, and gene and position or locus.
Ploidy
- Number of chromosomes in a cell
Diploid
- Two sets of chromosomes
Haploid
- One set of chromosomes
Polyploid
- More than two sets of chromosomes
Mutagen
- Physical or chemical agents that cause mutations
Mutations
- Permanent change in an organism's DNA
- Caused by mutagens or copying mistakes
Gene Mutations (substitutions)
- Point mutations or substitutions
- Change in a single base
- Silent - no effect on the organism
Frameshift Mutations (insertion, deletion)
- Affect entire chromosome-many genes
- Causes changes in DNA sequence
Chromosome Mutations
- Duplication, inversion, deletion, or translocation
Nondisjunction
- Chromosomes fail to separate correctly during meiosis
- Results in gametes (and new individuals) with abnormal chromosome numbers.
Karyotype
- Photo showing all chromosomes of an organism
Inheritance/Genetics
- Passing of traits from parent to offspring.
- Study of heredity
Pure-Bred
- Organisms producing offspring identical to themselves when self-fertilized.
Allele
- Alternate forms of a gene
Hybrid
- Result of a cross between true-breeding parents having different traits
Dominant Gene
- Masks the effect of the other gene
Recessive Gene
- Effect is masked by a dominant gene
Law of Segregation
- Gene pairs separate during gamete formation
Law of Independent Assortment
- Different gene pairs separate independently during gamete formation
Homozygous
- True-breeding organism with identical alleles for a certain trait
Heterozygous
- Organism with two different alleles for a trait
Phenotype
- Observable physical trait of an organism
Genotype
- Genetic makeup of an organism
Incomplete Dominance
- Heterozygous genotype displays an intermediate trait
Codominance
- Heterozygous genotype displays both alleles simultaneously (no blending)
Multiple Alleles
- Traits controlled by numerous gene variations for a particular trait
Sex-linked Genes
- Genes located on the X chromosome
Pedigree
- Traces trait inheritance across generations
Pleiotropic
- One gene affects multiple traits
Monogenetic
- Trait impacted by one gene
Polygenetic
- Trait impacted by multiple genes
Epigenetics
- Modifications altering gene expression without changing the DNA sequence
Microevolution
- Small genetic changes in a population
Macroevolution
- Major genetic changes over a shorter time that could result in species differentiation
Population
- Group of individuals of the same species living in the same place at the same time
Species
- Group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring
Hardy-Weinberg Principle
- Genetic equilibrium condition where allele frequencies do not change in a population.
Genetic Drift
- Random changes in gene pool of a small population; chance occurrence
Bottleneck effect
- Population severely declines, then recovers
Founder effect
- Small group from a larger population establishes a new population
Non-random Mating
- Individuals show mate preferences (sexual selection and/or assortative mating).
Mutations
- Random changes in genetic material
Natural Selection
- Phenotype traits better suited for the environment to enhance reproductive success
Stabilizing Selection
- Selects average expression to increase fitness over the extreme expression in the trait
Directional Selection
- Extreme trait expression increases in fitness over the average expression in the trait
Disruptive Selection
- Extreme expression is maintained over the average trait expression
Speciation
- Evolution of new species from existing ones through population separation.
Allopatric Speciation
- Physical barrier separates populations into new distinct species.
Sympatric Speciation
- New species evolve without physical barriers (isolation of different habit, behavior, time of breeding).
Selective Breeding
- Choosing desired traits in plants and animals to pass on to future generations, ensuring these traits are more dominant in following generations.
Inbreeding
- Closely related organisms mated to maintain and increase the occurrence of a desired trait in animals or plants
Hybridization
- Crossing organisms (in plants or animals) from different forms to increase a specific desired trait in resultant hybrid.
Artificial Selection
- Human-initiated selection of desirable traits in organisms to enhance those traits in successive generations
Restriction Enzymes
- Proteins isolating genes for further DNA manipulation or study.
- Cleave DNA molecules at specific sequences.
Gel Electrophoresis
- Technique separating DNA, RNA or proteins based on size or electrical charge.
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
- Fast copy technique for specific DNA fragment(s)
- Amplifying DNA for further study or analysis
DNA Sequencing
- Determining the precise chemical order of nucleotides (building blocks) within a DNA molecule
DNA Fingerprinting
- Comparing patterns of DNA sequence differences between individuals; useful for identification or comparisons.
Recombinant DNA
- Combining DNA from different sources
- Enables study of individual genes from larger samples
Gene Cloning
- Creating identical copies of specific genes (DNA fragments)
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Description
Explore the essential concepts of asexual and sexual reproduction, cell cycle phases including interphase and mitosis. Understand the differences between chromosomes and chromatids and their roles during cell division. This quiz will help reinforce key biological concepts for better comprehension.
