Podcast
Questions and Answers
What is the total number of base pairs in bacteriophage lambda?
What is the total number of base pairs in bacteriophage lambda?
- 4600000
- 48502 (correct)
- 5386
- 3300000000
Uracil is found in DNA.
Uracil is found in DNA.
False (B)
Name the two types of nitrogenous bases found in nucleotides.
Name the two types of nitrogenous bases found in nucleotides.
Purines and Pyrimidines
A nucleotide consists of a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and a __________.
A nucleotide consists of a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and a __________.
Match the nitrogenous bases with their categories:
Match the nitrogenous bases with their categories:
Which of the following links nucleotides together to form a polynucleotide chain?
Which of the following links nucleotides together to form a polynucleotide chain?
Friedrich Meischer was the first to isolate DNA in its native form.
Friedrich Meischer was the first to isolate DNA in its native form.
What additional group is present in RNA that is not found in DNA nucleotides?
What additional group is present in RNA that is not found in DNA nucleotides?
What was George Gamow's proposition about the genetic code?
What was George Gamow's proposition about the genetic code?
The codon is read in RNA with punctuation marks.
The codon is read in RNA with punctuation marks.
Which three codons do not code for amino acids?
Which three codons do not code for amino acids?
The amino acid coded for by the codon AUG is __________.
The amino acid coded for by the codon AUG is __________.
What does the genetic code being 'degenerate' imply?
What does the genetic code being 'degenerate' imply?
The enzymes developed by Har Gobind Khorana were used in __________ synthesis of RNA.
The enzymes developed by Har Gobind Khorana were used in __________ synthesis of RNA.
What is the relationship between amino acids and mutations in genetic code studies?
What is the relationship between amino acids and mutations in genetic code studies?
Match the following codons to their corresponding amino acids:
Match the following codons to their corresponding amino acids:
What is the function of the anticodon loop in tRNA?
What is the function of the anticodon loop in tRNA?
Initiator tRNA is specific only to start codons, which signals the beginning of translation.
Initiator tRNA is specific only to start codons, which signals the beginning of translation.
What is the role of ATP in the process of tRNA charging?
What is the role of ATP in the process of tRNA charging?
The ribosome is composed of structural RNAs and approximately _____ different proteins.
The ribosome is composed of structural RNAs and approximately _____ different proteins.
Match the following components with their functions in translation:
Match the following components with their functions in translation:
What is the structural form of tRNA in its actual state?
What is the structural form of tRNA in its actual state?
There are specific tRNAs for stop codons during the translation process.
There are specific tRNAs for stop codons during the translation process.
What is the purpose of the peptide bond?
What is the purpose of the peptide bond?
What is the primary purpose of cloning DNA fragments in sequencing?
What is the primary purpose of cloning DNA fragments in sequencing?
Sanger's method is solely used for determining DNA sequences.
Sanger's method is solely used for determining DNA sequences.
What is the total estimated number of genes in the human genome?
What is the total estimated number of genes in the human genome?
The largest known human gene is __________, consisting of 2.4 million bases.
The largest known human gene is __________, consisting of 2.4 million bases.
What percentage of base sequences among humans are the same?
What percentage of base sequences among humans are the same?
Match the following terms with their descriptions:
Match the following terms with their descriptions:
Chromosome 1 has the fewest number of genes among human chromosomes.
Chromosome 1 has the fewest number of genes among human chromosomes.
Which of the following is NOT a feature of the human genome project?
Which of the following is NOT a feature of the human genome project?
What are single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs)?
What are single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs)?
DNA fingerprinting is a quick way to compare DNA sequences of ______ individuals.
DNA fingerprinting is a quick way to compare DNA sequences of ______ individuals.
Over 50% of discovered genes have unknown functions.
Over 50% of discovered genes have unknown functions.
In what year was the sequencing of chromosome 1 completed?
In what year was the sequencing of chromosome 1 completed?
Match the following chromosomes with the correct number of genes:
Match the following chromosomes with the correct number of genes:
What role do repetitive sequences play in the human genome?
What role do repetitive sequences play in the human genome?
The human genome is estimated to consist of 3 billion base pairs.
The human genome is estimated to consist of 3 billion base pairs.
What is one major application of DNA sequencing mentioned?
What is one major application of DNA sequencing mentioned?
What does VNTR stand for in the context of DNA fingerprinting?
What does VNTR stand for in the context of DNA fingerprinting?
DNA fingerprinting was developed by Francis Crick.
DNA fingerprinting was developed by Francis Crick.
What is the primary role of polymorphisms in evolution?
What is the primary role of polymorphisms in evolution?
The technique of DNA fingerprinting includes __________ as a step that involves identifying the DNA fragments.
The technique of DNA fingerprinting includes __________ as a step that involves identifying the DNA fragments.
Match the following steps of DNA fingerprinting with their descriptions:
Match the following steps of DNA fingerprinting with their descriptions:
What is the maximum size of VNTR fragments that can be obtained?
What is the maximum size of VNTR fragments that can be obtained?
Identical twins have the same VNTR patterns.
Identical twins have the same VNTR patterns.
What technique enhances the sensitivity of DNA fingerprinting?
What technique enhances the sensitivity of DNA fingerprinting?
What is the sugar component of DNA nucleotides?
What is the sugar component of DNA nucleotides?
Cytosine is found in both DNA and RNA.
Cytosine is found in both DNA and RNA.
What type of linkage connects nucleotides in a polynucleotide chain?
What type of linkage connects nucleotides in a polynucleotide chain?
A __________ is formed when a nitrogenous base is linked to a pentose sugar.
A __________ is formed when a nitrogenous base is linked to a pentose sugar.
Match each nitrogenous base with its category:
Match each nitrogenous base with its category:
What is the function of the 5' end of a polynucleotide chain?
What is the function of the 5' end of a polynucleotide chain?
Uracil replaces Thymine in RNA.
Uracil replaces Thymine in RNA.
Who first identified DNA as 'Nuclein'?
Who first identified DNA as 'Nuclein'?
What type of DNA replication was proposed by Watson and Crick?
What type of DNA replication was proposed by Watson and Crick?
RNA is more stable than DNA.
RNA is more stable than DNA.
Who were the scientists that provided experimental proof for semiconservative DNA replication?
Who were the scientists that provided experimental proof for semiconservative DNA replication?
DNA's double-stranded structure allows for a process of ________ to repair changes.
DNA's double-stranded structure allows for a process of ________ to repair changes.
What allows DNA to resist changes over time?
What allows DNA to resist changes over time?
Match the following scientists with their contributions to DNA research:
Match the following scientists with their contributions to DNA research:
Each DNA molecule after replication will have two newly synthesized strands.
Each DNA molecule after replication will have two newly synthesized strands.
What biochemical issue did RNA face that led to the evolution of DNA?
What biochemical issue did RNA face that led to the evolution of DNA?
What process describes the flow of genetic information in most organisms?
What process describes the flow of genetic information in most organisms?
The distance between two consecutive base pairs in DNA is approximately 0.34 nm.
The distance between two consecutive base pairs in DNA is approximately 0.34 nm.
What is the name of the structure formed when DNA is packaged with histones in eukaryotic cells?
What is the name of the structure formed when DNA is packaged with histones in eukaryotic cells?
In some viruses, the flow of information is from RNA to __________.
In some viruses, the flow of information is from RNA to __________.
Match the following structures with their descriptions:
Match the following structures with their descriptions:
How long is the DNA double helix in a typical mammalian cell?
How long is the DNA double helix in a typical mammalian cell?
Histones are negatively charged proteins that assist in DNA packaging.
Histones are negatively charged proteins that assist in DNA packaging.
Which two amino acids are histones rich in that contribute to their positive charge?
Which two amino acids are histones rich in that contribute to their positive charge?
What defines the 5' end of a transcription unit?
What defines the 5' end of a transcription unit?
Eukaryotic genes are typically polycistronic.
Eukaryotic genes are typically polycistronic.
What term describes the sequences that do not appear in mature RNA?
What term describes the sequences that do not appear in mature RNA?
The DNA sequence coding for tRNA or rRNA also defines a ______.
The DNA sequence coding for tRNA or rRNA also defines a ______.
Match the terms with their definitions:
Match the terms with their definitions:
Which of the following statements is true regarding regulatory sequences?
Which of the following statements is true regarding regulatory sequences?
A cistron is defined as a segment of DNA coding for a polypeptide.
A cistron is defined as a segment of DNA coding for a polypeptide.
What are the functional units of inheritance located on DNA called?
What are the functional units of inheritance located on DNA called?
Which part of tRNA is responsible for binding to amino acids?
Which part of tRNA is responsible for binding to amino acids?
Initiator tRNA is specific only to start codons.
Initiator tRNA is specific only to start codons.
What is the shape of the tRNA in its actual structure?
What is the shape of the tRNA in its actual structure?
The process of linking amino acids by a peptide bond requires __________.
The process of linking amino acids by a peptide bond requires __________.
What is the role of ATP in the charging of tRNA?
What is the role of ATP in the charging of tRNA?
There are tRNAs for stop codons.
There are tRNAs for stop codons.
What bond is formed between amino acids during translation?
What bond is formed between amino acids during translation?
What type of DNA is primarily used as a probe in DNA fingerprinting?
What type of DNA is primarily used as a probe in DNA fingerprinting?
The technique of DNA fingerprinting can differentiate the DNA of monozygotic twins.
The technique of DNA fingerprinting can differentiate the DNA of monozygotic twins.
Who developed the technique of DNA fingerprinting?
Who developed the technique of DNA fingerprinting?
The technique of DNA fingerprinting includes the use of __________ to detect hybridized DNA fragments.
The technique of DNA fingerprinting includes the use of __________ to detect hybridized DNA fragments.
Which of the following steps is NOT part of the DNA fingerprinting process?
Which of the following steps is NOT part of the DNA fingerprinting process?
Match the following terms associated with DNA fingerprinting to their descriptions:
Match the following terms associated with DNA fingerprinting to their descriptions:
What is the size range of VNTR fragments?
What is the size range of VNTR fragments?
The characteristic pattern of DNA is generated after hybridization using a __________ probe.
The characteristic pattern of DNA is generated after hybridization using a __________ probe.
What was the outcome when Griffith injected a mixture of heat-killed S strain and live R strain bacteria into mice?
What was the outcome when Griffith injected a mixture of heat-killed S strain and live R strain bacteria into mice?
Proteins were determined to be the genetic material based on early experiments.
Proteins were determined to be the genetic material based on early experiments.
What did Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty conclude was the hereditary material?
What did Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty conclude was the hereditary material?
The component that inhibits transformation when digested is __________.
The component that inhibits transformation when digested is __________.
Match the following scientists with their contributions:
Match the following scientists with their contributions:
In Hershey and Chase's experiments, which radioactive element was used to label DNA?
In Hershey and Chase's experiments, which radioactive element was used to label DNA?
Heat-killed S strain bacteria can cause pneumonia in infected mice.
Heat-killed S strain bacteria can cause pneumonia in infected mice.
What is the primary role of the genetic material in cells?
What is the primary role of the genetic material in cells?
What is the average rate of polymerization during DNA replication in E. coli?
What is the average rate of polymerization during DNA replication in E. coli?
DNA-dependent DNA polymerases can initiate the process of replication on their own.
DNA-dependent DNA polymerases can initiate the process of replication on their own.
What enzyme is responsible for joining the discontinuously synthesized fragments of DNA?
What enzyme is responsible for joining the discontinuously synthesized fragments of DNA?
In E. coli, the region where replication originates is referred to as the __________.
In E. coli, the region where replication originates is referred to as the __________.
What occurs at the S-phase of the cell cycle?
What occurs at the S-phase of the cell cycle?
Replication in E. coli occurs continuously on both strands of DNA.
Replication in E. coli occurs continuously on both strands of DNA.
The __________ is the small opening in the DNA helix where replication occurs.
The __________ is the small opening in the DNA helix where replication occurs.
What is the primary role of RNA in cellular functions?
What is the primary role of RNA in cellular functions?
DNA is chemically and structurally less stable than RNA.
DNA is chemically and structurally less stable than RNA.
What is the primary function of the z gene in the lac operon?
What is the primary function of the z gene in the lac operon?
What are the two bases that adenine pairs with in DNA?
What are the two bases that adenine pairs with in DNA?
During the process of ______________, exons are joined and introns are removed from the RNA transcript.
During the process of ______________, exons are joined and introns are removed from the RNA transcript.
The lac operon consists of only structural genes, with no regulatory gene present.
The lac operon consists of only structural genes, with no regulatory gene present.
Match the following types of RNA with their primary functions:
Match the following types of RNA with their primary functions:
What are the three structural genes found in the lac operon?
What are the three structural genes found in the lac operon?
The operator region in prokaryotic DNA is typically regulated by the interaction of proteins with sequences termed __________.
The operator region in prokaryotic DNA is typically regulated by the interaction of proteins with sequences termed __________.
What does the genetic code read on the principle of?
What does the genetic code read on the principle of?
Match the following lac operon components with their functions:
Match the following lac operon components with their functions:
In bacteria, multiple genes are regulated in units known as operons.
In bacteria, multiple genes are regulated in units known as operons.
What type of bond is responsible for the pairing between bases in the DNA double helix?
What type of bond is responsible for the pairing between bases in the DNA double helix?
Which of the following is true regarding the interaction of lactose with the lac operon?
Which of the following is true regarding the interaction of lactose with the lac operon?
The lac operator can interact with multiple types of repressor proteins.
The lac operator can interact with multiple types of repressor proteins.
Who were the two scientists that first elucidated the lac operon?
Who were the two scientists that first elucidated the lac operon?
What initiates the translation process in mRNA?
What initiates the translation process in mRNA?
The untranslated regions (UTR) of mRNA are translated into polypeptides.
The untranslated regions (UTR) of mRNA are translated into polypeptides.
What is the function of the release factor during translation?
What is the function of the release factor during translation?
In eukaryotes, regulation of gene expression can occur at the __________ level.
In eukaryotes, regulation of gene expression can occur at the __________ level.
Match the following stages of protein synthesis with their descriptions:
Match the following stages of protein synthesis with their descriptions:
Which of the following best describes the role of beta-galactosidase in E. coli?
Which of the following best describes the role of beta-galactosidase in E. coli?
The elongation phase of translation involves the ribosome moving from one codon to the next on the mRNA strand.
The elongation phase of translation involves the ribosome moving from one codon to the next on the mRNA strand.
Which RNA polymerase is responsible for the transcription of precursor mRNA?
Which RNA polymerase is responsible for the transcription of precursor mRNA?
Why is it necessary for cells to regulate gene expression?
Why is it necessary for cells to regulate gene expression?
Introns are retained in the final mRNA after the splicing process.
Introns are retained in the final mRNA after the splicing process.
What is added to the 5'-end of hnRNA during the capping process?
What is added to the 5'-end of hnRNA during the capping process?
The fully processed hnRNA is known as __________.
The fully processed hnRNA is known as __________.
Match the RNA polymerases with their functions:
Match the RNA polymerases with their functions:
What is the primary role of the genetic code?
What is the primary role of the genetic code?
The genetic code has a one-to-one correspondence between nucleotides and amino acids.
The genetic code has a one-to-one correspondence between nucleotides and amino acids.
Which feature of the genome does the presence of introns suggest?
Which feature of the genome does the presence of introns suggest?
What type of DNA was produced after E. coli was transferred to a medium containing 14NH4Cl for one generation?
What type of DNA was produced after E. coli was transferred to a medium containing 14NH4Cl for one generation?
15N is a radioactive isotope of nitrogen.
15N is a radioactive isotope of nitrogen.
What is the main enzyme responsible for DNA synthesis in E. coli?
What is the main enzyme responsible for DNA synthesis in E. coli?
E. coli divides approximately every __________ minutes.
E. coli divides approximately every __________ minutes.
Match the following densities of DNA with the generation they represent:
Match the following densities of DNA with the generation they represent:
Which technique was used to separate DNA based on density in the experiments?
Which technique was used to separate DNA based on density in the experiments?
The DNA replication process in cells is completely error-free.
The DNA replication process in cells is completely error-free.
What experimental design proved that DNA in chromosomes replicates semiconservatively?
What experimental design proved that DNA in chromosomes replicates semiconservatively?
In E. coli, replication occurs randomly at any place in the DNA.
In E. coli, replication occurs randomly at any place in the DNA.
Name the enzyme that joins the discontinuously synthesized DNA fragments.
Name the enzyme that joins the discontinuously synthesized DNA fragments.
The process of DNA replication in prokaryotes occurs at the _____ phase of the cell cycle.
The process of DNA replication in prokaryotes occurs at the _____ phase of the cell cycle.
Match the following components with their functions in DNA replication:
Match the following components with their functions in DNA replication:
Why is DNA replication considered an energetically expensive process?
Why is DNA replication considered an energetically expensive process?
In eukaryotes, replication occurs continuously without any interruptions.
In eukaryotes, replication occurs continuously without any interruptions.
What term describes the chromosomal anomaly that can occur if cell division fails after DNA replication?
What term describes the chromosomal anomaly that can occur if cell division fails after DNA replication?
What distinguishes RNA from DNA in terms of nitrogenous bases?
What distinguishes RNA from DNA in terms of nitrogenous bases?
Both DNA and RNA have a phosphate group in their nucleotides.
Both DNA and RNA have a phosphate group in their nucleotides.
List the two types of purines found in nucleotides.
List the two types of purines found in nucleotides.
The backbone of a polynucleotide chain is formed by __________ and phosphates.
The backbone of a polynucleotide chain is formed by __________ and phosphates.
Match the following elements with their respective descriptions:
Match the following elements with their respective descriptions:
How are two nucleotides linked together in a polynucleotide chain?
How are two nucleotides linked together in a polynucleotide chain?
Thymine is present in both DNA and RNA.
Thymine is present in both DNA and RNA.
What is the term used for the linkage between a nitrogenous base and a pentose sugar?
What is the term used for the linkage between a nitrogenous base and a pentose sugar?
What is the primary role of the lac operon in prokaryotes?
What is the primary role of the lac operon in prokaryotes?
The lac operon is an example of a monocistronic operon.
The lac operon is an example of a monocistronic operon.
What does the i gene in the lac operon code for?
What does the i gene in the lac operon code for?
In the lac operon, lactose acts as an __________ to enable the transcription of the operon.
In the lac operon, lactose acts as an __________ to enable the transcription of the operon.
Match the gene with its function in the lac operon:
Match the gene with its function in the lac operon:
Which of the following statements accurately describes the function of the lac repressor?
Which of the following statements accurately describes the function of the lac repressor?
All operons in prokaryotes are composed of an operator and a single structural gene.
All operons in prokaryotes are composed of an operator and a single structural gene.
Who were the two scientists that elucidated the lac operon?
Who were the two scientists that elucidated the lac operon?
What is the primary use of DNA fingerprinting?
What is the primary use of DNA fingerprinting?
DNA polymorphism can arise from mutations in both somatic and germ cells.
DNA polymorphism can arise from mutations in both somatic and germ cells.
What are satellite DNA sequences primarily used for in DNA fingerprinting?
What are satellite DNA sequences primarily used for in DNA fingerprinting?
Polymorphism refers to variation at the genetic level due to __________.
Polymorphism refers to variation at the genetic level due to __________.
Match the types of DNA with their characteristics:
Match the types of DNA with their characteristics:
In what situations is DNA fingerprinting particularly useful?
In what situations is DNA fingerprinting particularly useful?
Micro-satellites are generally larger than mini-satellites in terms of DNA repeats.
Micro-satellites are generally larger than mini-satellites in terms of DNA repeats.
What frequency must a variant allele occur to be considered a DNA polymorphism?
What frequency must a variant allele occur to be considered a DNA polymorphism?
What is the result of a point mutation in the gene for beta globin chain?
What is the result of a point mutation in the gene for beta globin chain?
Insertion or deletion of one or two bases does not affect the reading frame.
Insertion or deletion of one or two bases does not affect the reading frame.
What condition is caused by the mutation of the beta globin gene?
What condition is caused by the mutation of the beta globin gene?
The process of mutations that changes the reading frame of a gene due to insertion or deletion is called __________ mutations.
The process of mutations that changes the reading frame of a gene due to insertion or deletion is called __________ mutations.
Match the following types of mutations with their descriptions:
Match the following types of mutations with their descriptions:
Which of the following best describes the role of tRNA?
Which of the following best describes the role of tRNA?
TRNA was first recognized as a necessary component for reading the genetic code.
TRNA was first recognized as a necessary component for reading the genetic code.
When multiple bases are inserted or deleted in a gene, the ______________ will remain unchanged from that point onwards.
When multiple bases are inserted or deleted in a gene, the ______________ will remain unchanged from that point onwards.
What was the result when Griffith injected a mixture of heat-killed S strain and live R strain bacteria into mice?
What was the result when Griffith injected a mixture of heat-killed S strain and live R strain bacteria into mice?
DNA is the hereditary material according to Griffith's experiments.
DNA is the hereditary material according to Griffith's experiments.
What two enzymes did Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty find that did not affect the transformation of R strain bacteria?
What two enzymes did Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty find that did not affect the transformation of R strain bacteria?
The unequivocal proof that DNA is the genetic material came from the experiments of __________ and Martha Chase.
The unequivocal proof that DNA is the genetic material came from the experiments of __________ and Martha Chase.
Match the following scientists with their contributions in proving DNA as the genetic material:
Match the following scientists with their contributions in proving DNA as the genetic material:
What did DNase digestion indicate in Avery's experiments?
What did DNase digestion indicate in Avery's experiments?
The bacteriophage is a type of virus that infects plants.
The bacteriophage is a type of virus that infects plants.
What was the biochemical compound thought to be the genetic material before Avery and his colleagues' experiments?
What was the biochemical compound thought to be the genetic material before Avery and his colleagues' experiments?
What structure is formed when DNA is wrapped around histone proteins?
What structure is formed when DNA is wrapped around histone proteins?
Euchromatin is transcriptionally inactive.
Euchromatin is transcriptionally inactive.
How many base pairs of DNA does a typical nucleosome contain?
How many base pairs of DNA does a typical nucleosome contain?
The __________ principle refers to the genetic material that can transform bacteria.
The __________ principle refers to the genetic material that can transform bacteria.
Match the following types of chromatin with their characteristics:
Match the following types of chromatin with their characteristics:
Who conducted experiments that led to the discovery of the transforming principle?
Who conducted experiments that led to the discovery of the transforming principle?
Nucleosomes are visualized under an electron microscope as a 'beads-on-string' structure.
Nucleosomes are visualized under an electron microscope as a 'beads-on-string' structure.
What is the bacterium that Frederick Griffith used in his experiments?
What is the bacterium that Frederick Griffith used in his experiments?
What type of vectors are commonly used for cloning DNA fragments in sequencing?
What type of vectors are commonly used for cloning DNA fragments in sequencing?
The majority of discovered genes in the human genome have well-known functions.
The majority of discovered genes in the human genome have well-known functions.
What was the last human chromosome to be sequenced, completed in May 2006?
What was the last human chromosome to be sequenced, completed in May 2006?
The total estimated number of genes in the human genome is __________.
The total estimated number of genes in the human genome is __________.
Which feature of the human genome indicates that almost all nucleotide bases are the same across individuals?
Which feature of the human genome indicates that almost all nucleotide bases are the same across individuals?
Less than 2% of the human genome codes for proteins.
Less than 2% of the human genome codes for proteins.
Who developed the method for DNA sequencing that is commonly used today?
Who developed the method for DNA sequencing that is commonly used today?
What is the main role of tRNA in protein synthesis?
What is the main role of tRNA in protein synthesis?
Translation begins with the binding of a charged tRNA to the ribosome.
Translation begins with the binding of a charged tRNA to the ribosome.
What type of bond is formed between amino acids during translation?
What type of bond is formed between amino acids during translation?
During the charging of tRNA, amino acids are linked to their cognate tRNA in the presence of __________.
During the charging of tRNA, amino acids are linked to their cognate tRNA in the presence of __________.
Match the following components involved in translation with their respective functions:
Match the following components involved in translation with their respective functions:
Which statement about tRNA is true?
Which statement about tRNA is true?
Charged tRNAs need to be close enough to each other for peptide bond formation to occur.
Charged tRNAs need to be close enough to each other for peptide bond formation to occur.
What is the function of the ribosome in protein synthesis?
What is the function of the ribosome in protein synthesis?
The untranslated regions (UTRs) of mRNA are only present at the 5' end.
The untranslated regions (UTRs) of mRNA are only present at the 5' end.
What signals the start of translation in an mRNA sequence?
What signals the start of translation in an mRNA sequence?
The enzyme beta-galactosidase is synthesized by E.coli to catalyze the hydrolysis of __________.
The enzyme beta-galactosidase is synthesized by E.coli to catalyze the hydrolysis of __________.
Match the following levels of gene expression regulation with their descriptions:
Match the following levels of gene expression regulation with their descriptions:
What happens at the stop codon during translation?
What happens at the stop codon during translation?
The elongation phase of protein synthesis involves adding amino acids based on the codon sequence.
The elongation phase of protein synthesis involves adding amino acids based on the codon sequence.
What are the two types of codons found in mRNA?
What are the two types of codons found in mRNA?
Which chromosome has the most genes in the human genome?
Which chromosome has the most genes in the human genome?
Repetitive sequences in the human genome are believed to have direct coding functions.
Repetitive sequences in the human genome are believed to have direct coding functions.
What are single nucleotide polymorphisms commonly referred to as?
What are single nucleotide polymorphisms commonly referred to as?
DNA fingerprinting is a quick way to compare the DNA sequences of different __________.
DNA fingerprinting is a quick way to compare the DNA sequences of different __________.
Match the following to their descriptions:
Match the following to their descriptions:
What is one significant benefit of whole-genome sequencing?
What is one significant benefit of whole-genome sequencing?
The estimated number of base pairs in the human genome is __________.
The estimated number of base pairs in the human genome is __________.
Approximately 99.9% of base sequences among humans are identical.
Approximately 99.9% of base sequences among humans are identical.
What is the primary reason both DNA strands are not copied during transcription?
What is the primary reason both DNA strands are not copied during transcription?
The template strand in a transcription unit has a 5' to 3' polarity.
The template strand in a transcription unit has a 5' to 3' polarity.
Which of the following components is NOT part of a nucleotide?
Which of the following components is NOT part of a nucleotide?
What are the three primary regions that define a transcription unit in DNA?
What are the three primary regions that define a transcription unit in DNA?
Which RNA polymerase is responsible for transcribing precursor mRNA?
Which RNA polymerase is responsible for transcribing precursor mRNA?
The process of splicing involves the joining of introns and removal of exons.
The process of splicing involves the joining of introns and removal of exons.
In transcription, adenosine complements __________ instead of thymine.
In transcription, adenosine complements __________ instead of thymine.
Thymine is present in RNA in place of Uracil.
Thymine is present in RNA in place of Uracil.
What is added to the 5'-end of hnRNA during capping?
What is added to the 5'-end of hnRNA during capping?
What is the backbone of a polynucleotide chain primarily made up of?
What is the backbone of a polynucleotide chain primarily made up of?
Match the components of a transcription unit with their definitions:
Match the components of a transcription unit with their definitions:
The nitrogenous bases in nucleotides include purines and __________.
The nitrogenous bases in nucleotides include purines and __________.
Which strand is referred to as the coding strand during transcription?
Which strand is referred to as the coding strand during transcription?
RNA polymerase III is responsible for transcribing __________.
RNA polymerase III is responsible for transcribing __________.
Transcription results in the duplication of the entire DNA molecule.
Transcription results in the duplication of the entire DNA molecule.
Match the following nitrogenous bases with their classification:
Match the following nitrogenous bases with their classification:
Match the following RNA types with their functions:
Match the following RNA types with their functions:
Which is true about the ends of a polynucleotide chain?
Which is true about the ends of a polynucleotide chain?
What is the direction of RNA synthesis during transcription?
What is the direction of RNA synthesis during transcription?
Which of the following processes occurs after hnRNA is transcribed?
Which of the following processes occurs after hnRNA is transcribed?
The genetic code consists of codons that correspond directly to nucleotides.
The genetic code consists of codons that correspond directly to nucleotides.
Phosphodiester linkages connect the 5' phosphate of one nucleotide to the 3' hydroxyl of another.
Phosphodiester linkages connect the 5' phosphate of one nucleotide to the 3' hydroxyl of another.
Who first identified DNA and called it 'Nuclein'?
Who first identified DNA and called it 'Nuclein'?
What is the primary function of mRNA in eukaryotic cells?
What is the primary function of mRNA in eukaryotic cells?
There are specific tRNAs for stop codons.
There are specific tRNAs for stop codons.
What type of bond is formed between amino acids during protein synthesis?
What type of bond is formed between amino acids during protein synthesis?
The process of linking amino acids to their corresponding tRNA is known as __________.
The process of linking amino acids to their corresponding tRNA is known as __________.
Match the following components with their roles in translation:
Match the following components with their roles in translation:
What configuration does tRNA assume in its actual structure?
What configuration does tRNA assume in its actual structure?
Translation begins with the binding of the large ribosomal subunit to mRNA.
Translation begins with the binding of the large ribosomal subunit to mRNA.
The ribosome consists of structural RNAs and about _____ different proteins.
The ribosome consists of structural RNAs and about _____ different proteins.
What is the primary function of untranslated regions (UTR) in mRNA?
What is the primary function of untranslated regions (UTR) in mRNA?
The ribosome only functions during the initiation phase of protein synthesis.
The ribosome only functions during the initiation phase of protein synthesis.
What signal does the initiator tRNA recognize in the mRNA?
What signal does the initiator tRNA recognize in the mRNA?
The enzyme __________ is synthesized by E.coli to catalyse the hydrolysis of lactose.
The enzyme __________ is synthesized by E.coli to catalyse the hydrolysis of lactose.
Match the following steps of translation with their descriptions:
Match the following steps of translation with their descriptions:
During which phase of protein synthesis does the ribosome move along the mRNA?
During which phase of protein synthesis does the ribosome move along the mRNA?
Gene expression can only be regulated at the transcriptional level in eukaryotes.
Gene expression can only be regulated at the transcriptional level in eukaryotes.
What binds to the stop codon to terminate translation?
What binds to the stop codon to terminate translation?
What is the largest known human gene?
What is the largest known human gene?
The total number of genes in the human genome is estimated to be around 50,000.
The total number of genes in the human genome is estimated to be around 50,000.
What technology is commonly used to sequence DNA fragments?
What technology is commonly used to sequence DNA fragments?
Less than _____ percent of the human genome codes for proteins.
Less than _____ percent of the human genome codes for proteins.
Match the following vector types to their corresponding organisms:
Match the following vector types to their corresponding organisms:
Which of the following is a method developed by Frederick Sanger?
Which of the following is a method developed by Frederick Sanger?
Over 50% of the discovered genes have known functions.
Over 50% of the discovered genes have known functions.
When was the sequencing of chromosome 1 completed?
When was the sequencing of chromosome 1 completed?
What type of replication process was proposed by Watson and Crick for DNA?
What type of replication process was proposed by Watson and Crick for DNA?
RNA is more stable than DNA due to its single-stranded structure.
RNA is more stable than DNA due to its single-stranded structure.
What does RNA act as besides serving as genetic material?
What does RNA act as besides serving as genetic material?
DNA replication is described as __________ because the two strands separate and serve as templates.
DNA replication is described as __________ because the two strands separate and serve as templates.
Which of the following statements about DNA structure is correct?
Which of the following statements about DNA structure is correct?
What was the year when Meselson and Stahl conducted their experiment on DNA replication?
What was the year when Meselson and Stahl conducted their experiment on DNA replication?
DNA's double stranded structure makes it more reactive than RNA.
DNA's double stranded structure makes it more reactive than RNA.
DNA polymerases can initiate the replication process on their own.
DNA polymerases can initiate the replication process on their own.
What enzymes are responsible for joining discontinuously synthesized fragments during DNA replication?
What enzymes are responsible for joining discontinuously synthesized fragments during DNA replication?
The two strands of DNA cannot be separated in their entire length due to high energy requirement, leading to the formation of a __________.
The two strands of DNA cannot be separated in their entire length due to high energy requirement, leading to the formation of a __________.
Match the following processes or components with their descriptions:
Match the following processes or components with their descriptions:
During DNA replication, which strand is synthesized continuously?
During DNA replication, which strand is synthesized continuously?
The S-phase of the cell cycle is when DNA replication occurs in eukaryotes.
The S-phase of the cell cycle is when DNA replication occurs in eukaryotes.
Why do deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates serve a dual purpose during DNA replication?
Why do deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates serve a dual purpose during DNA replication?
What is the role of the ribosome during translation?
What is the role of the ribosome during translation?
The untranslated regions (UTR) are only present at the 5' end of mRNA.
The untranslated regions (UTR) are only present at the 5' end of mRNA.
What codon serves as the start signal for translation?
What codon serves as the start signal for translation?
The __________ factor binds to the stop codon to terminate translation.
The __________ factor binds to the stop codon to terminate translation.
Match the following processes with their respective levels of gene expression regulation:
Match the following processes with their respective levels of gene expression regulation:
Which event occurs after the ribosome binds to the start codon?
Which event occurs after the ribosome binds to the start codon?
Gene expression can only be regulated at the transcriptional level.
Gene expression can only be regulated at the transcriptional level.
How does the presence or absence of lactose affect the synthesis of beta-galactosidase in E.coli?
How does the presence or absence of lactose affect the synthesis of beta-galactosidase in E.coli?
The technique of DNA fingerprinting relies on the consistent size of VNTR across individuals.
The technique of DNA fingerprinting relies on the consistent size of VNTR across individuals.
Name one application of DNA fingerprinting other than forensic science.
Name one application of DNA fingerprinting other than forensic science.
The five steps in DNA fingerprinting include isolation of DNA, digestion by restriction endonucleases, __________, blotting of separated DNA fragments, and hybridization using labelled VNTR probe.
The five steps in DNA fingerprinting include isolation of DNA, digestion by restriction endonucleases, __________, blotting of separated DNA fragments, and hybridization using labelled VNTR probe.
Match the following steps of the DNA fingerprinting process with their descriptions:
Match the following steps of the DNA fingerprinting process with their descriptions:
What type of DNA sequence does VNTR belong to?
What type of DNA sequence does VNTR belong to?
Identical twins have different VNTR patterns.
Identical twins have different VNTR patterns.
What enhances the sensitivity of DNA fingerprinting?
What enhances the sensitivity of DNA fingerprinting?
Which molecule is primarily responsible for transferring genetic information from DNA to proteins?
Which molecule is primarily responsible for transferring genetic information from DNA to proteins?
Introns are coding sequences that are joined together during RNA splicing.
Introns are coding sequences that are joined together during RNA splicing.
What is the process called that synthesizes RNA from a DNA template?
What is the process called that synthesizes RNA from a DNA template?
The _____ bonds between nitrogenous bases in DNA strands contribute to its double helical structure.
The _____ bonds between nitrogenous bases in DNA strands contribute to its double helical structure.
Match the following processes with their descriptions:
Match the following processes with their descriptions:
The lac operator is present in all operons.
The lac operator is present in all operons.
What is the function of the tRNA during translation?
What is the function of the tRNA during translation?
What type of proteins regulate the activity of RNA polymerase at a promoter?
What type of proteins regulate the activity of RNA polymerase at a promoter?
In eukaryotes, the mRNA is immediately functional after transcription.
In eukaryotes, the mRNA is immediately functional after transcription.
A segment of DNA that codes for RNA is referred to as a __________.
A segment of DNA that codes for RNA is referred to as a __________.
Lactose acts as an __________ for the lac operon.
Lactose acts as an __________ for the lac operon.
Match the following components of the lac operon with their roles:
Match the following components of the lac operon with their roles:
What type of arrangement is observed in an operon?
What type of arrangement is observed in an operon?
The repressor protein interacts specifically with operator sequences.
The repressor protein interacts specifically with operator sequences.
Who were the first to elucidate the transcriptionally regulated system in the lac operon?
Who were the first to elucidate the transcriptionally regulated system in the lac operon?
Which phase of protein synthesis involves the ribosome moving along the mRNA and adding amino acids sequentially?
Which phase of protein synthesis involves the ribosome moving along the mRNA and adding amino acids sequentially?
The untranslated regions (UTR) of mRNA are not required for the translation process.
The untranslated regions (UTR) of mRNA are not required for the translation process.
The ribosome is primarily made up of __________ and proteins.
The ribosome is primarily made up of __________ and proteins.
Which of the following factors does NOT influence the regulation of gene expression?
Which of the following factors does NOT influence the regulation of gene expression?
The release factor binds to the start codon to initiate translation.
The release factor binds to the start codon to initiate translation.
What enzyme is synthesized by E. coli to catalyze the hydrolysis of lactose?
What enzyme is synthesized by E. coli to catalyze the hydrolysis of lactose?
Which molecule acts as a template for RNA synthesis during transcription?
Which molecule acts as a template for RNA synthesis during transcription?
The genetic code is read in sets of four nucleotides to code for amino acids.
The genetic code is read in sets of four nucleotides to code for amino acids.
What type of RNA molecule aids in the transfer of amino acids during protein synthesis?
What type of RNA molecule aids in the transfer of amino acids during protein synthesis?
In eukaryotes, non-coding sequences called __________ are removed during RNA processing.
In eukaryotes, non-coding sequences called __________ are removed during RNA processing.
Match the following components of transcription and their functions:
Match the following components of transcription and their functions:
Which of the following statements about the structure of DNA is true?
Which of the following statements about the structure of DNA is true?
Translation occurs in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells.
Translation occurs in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells.
What is the primary purpose of transcription in gene expression?
What is the primary purpose of transcription in gene expression?
What replaces thymine in RNA during transcription?
What replaces thymine in RNA during transcription?
Both strands of DNA are copied during transcription.
Both strands of DNA are copied during transcription.
What are the three main components of a transcription unit?
What are the three main components of a transcription unit?
During transcription, the strand of DNA that acts as the template is oriented in the ________ direction.
During transcription, the strand of DNA that acts as the template is oriented in the ________ direction.
Match the following regions of a transcription unit with their functions:
Match the following regions of a transcription unit with their functions:
Why does the production of two complementary RNA molecules complicate genetic information transfer?
Why does the production of two complementary RNA molecules complicate genetic information transfer?
The coding strand of DNA has the same sequence as RNA, except for thymine.
The coding strand of DNA has the same sequence as RNA, except for thymine.
What is the primary role of the promoter in the transcription unit?
What is the primary role of the promoter in the transcription unit?
What type of model did Watson and Crick propose for the structure of DNA?
What type of model did Watson and Crick propose for the structure of DNA?
Adenine pairs with Guanine in the structure of DNA.
Adenine pairs with Guanine in the structure of DNA.
What is the length of the pitch of the DNA helix?
What is the length of the pitch of the DNA helix?
The two strands of DNA run in __________ polarity.
The two strands of DNA run in __________ polarity.
What is the role of permease in bacteria when lactose is present?
What is the role of permease in bacteria when lactose is present?
Match the base pairs with the correct number of hydrogen bonds:
Match the base pairs with the correct number of hydrogen bonds:
Which base pairing is correct based on the DNA structure?
Which base pairing is correct based on the DNA structure?
Glucose can act as an inducer for the lac operon.
Glucose can act as an inducer for the lac operon.
What is the estimated total cost of the Human Genome Project at $3 per base pair?
What is the estimated total cost of the Human Genome Project at $3 per base pair?
Watson and Crick’s model explained the mechanism of DNA replication.
Watson and Crick’s model explained the mechanism of DNA replication.
The human genome is estimated to have approximately __________ base pairs.
The human genome is estimated to have approximately __________ base pairs.
What observation by Erwin Chargaff contributed to the understanding of DNA structure?
What observation by Erwin Chargaff contributed to the understanding of DNA structure?
Match the following components of the lac operon with their functions:
Match the following components of the lac operon with their functions:
Which of the following statements is true regarding the regulation of the lac operon?
Which of the following statements is true regarding the regulation of the lac operon?
The lac operon is expressed for a long duration when lactose is present in the medium.
The lac operon is expressed for a long duration when lactose is present in the medium.
In what year was the Human Genome Project launched?
In what year was the Human Genome Project launched?
Which chromosome has the most genes?
Which chromosome has the most genes?
Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) represent differences in DNA sequences that can affect phenotypic traits.
Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) represent differences in DNA sequences that can affect phenotypic traits.
What is the estimated total size of the human genome in base pairs?
What is the estimated total size of the human genome in base pairs?
Repetitive sequences are thought to have no direct coding functions, but they provide insight into chromosome __________ and dynamics.
Repetitive sequences are thought to have no direct coding functions, but they provide insight into chromosome __________ and dynamics.
Match each term with its description:
Match each term with its description:
What is a major benefit of the human genome sequence?
What is a major benefit of the human genome sequence?
Identical twins have different DNA sequences.
Identical twins have different DNA sequences.
What type of variations can SNPs cause in individuals?
What type of variations can SNPs cause in individuals?
What was used as the only nitrogen source for E. coli in the experiment?
What was used as the only nitrogen source for E. coli in the experiment?
The DNA synthesized with 15N can be separated from normal DNA by differences in their radioactivity.
The DNA synthesized with 15N can be separated from normal DNA by differences in their radioactivity.
What density of DNA is produced after E. coli undergoes one generation in the presence of 14NH4Cl?
What density of DNA is produced after E. coli undergoes one generation in the presence of 14NH4Cl?
The main enzyme involved in DNA replication is called DNA-dependent DNA __________.
The main enzyme involved in DNA replication is called DNA-dependent DNA __________.
Match the following descriptions with the corresponding terms:
Match the following descriptions with the corresponding terms:
After how many minutes of growth in 14NH4Cl does E. coli produce equal amounts of hybrid and light DNA?
After how many minutes of growth in 14NH4Cl does E. coli produce equal amounts of hybrid and light DNA?
The experiments conducted by Taylor and his colleagues confirmed that DNA replicates in a conservative manner.
The experiments conducted by Taylor and his colleagues confirmed that DNA replicates in a conservative manner.
What is the role of DNA-dependent DNA polymerase in living cells?
What is the role of DNA-dependent DNA polymerase in living cells?
How many codons code for amino acids in the genetic code?
How many codons code for amino acids in the genetic code?
The codon AUG serves only one purpose as a start codon.
The codon AUG serves only one purpose as a start codon.
What technique was used by Har Gobind Khorana to synthesize RNA molecules?
What technique was used by Har Gobind Khorana to synthesize RNA molecules?
Three codons UAA, UAG, and UGA function as __________ codons.
Three codons UAA, UAG, and UGA function as __________ codons.
Match the codons with their corresponding amino acids:
Match the codons with their corresponding amino acids:
What characteristic of the genetic code indicates that some amino acids may be represented by more than one codon?
What characteristic of the genetic code indicates that some amino acids may be represented by more than one codon?
The genetic code is universally conserved across all species without any exceptions.
The genetic code is universally conserved across all species without any exceptions.
What are the two primary properties of the genetic code learned from the provided content?
What are the two primary properties of the genetic code learned from the provided content?
What are the two commonly used hosts for cloning DNA fragments?
What are the two commonly used hosts for cloning DNA fragments?
The sequence of chromosome 1 was completed in December 2005.
The sequence of chromosome 1 was completed in December 2005.
Name the largest known human gene.
Name the largest known human gene.
The human genome contains approximately __________ million base pairs.
The human genome contains approximately __________ million base pairs.
What percentage of the human genome is estimated to code for proteins?
What percentage of the human genome is estimated to code for proteins?
Almost all nucleotide bases in humans are identical, differing by only 0.1%.
Almost all nucleotide bases in humans are identical, differing by only 0.1%.
How many genes are estimated to exist in the human genome?
How many genes are estimated to exist in the human genome?
Which chromosome has the most number of genes in humans?
Which chromosome has the most number of genes in humans?
Repetitive sequences in the human genome are thought to have direct coding functions.
Repetitive sequences in the human genome are thought to have direct coding functions.
What is the estimated total number of base pairs in the human genome?
What is the estimated total number of base pairs in the human genome?
DNA fingerprinting is a technique that quickly compares the DNA sequences of ______ individuals.
DNA fingerprinting is a technique that quickly compares the DNA sequences of ______ individuals.
How many single nucleotide differences (SNPs) are estimated to exist in the human genome?
How many single nucleotide differences (SNPs) are estimated to exist in the human genome?
The majority of the human genome consists of unique sequences.
The majority of the human genome consists of unique sequences.
What is one of the main applications of sequencing the human genome?
What is one of the main applications of sequencing the human genome?
DNA replication in E.coli occurs in both directions simultaneously.
DNA replication in E.coli occurs in both directions simultaneously.
The correct direction of DNA polymerisation is from _____ to _____ (indicate the polarity).
The correct direction of DNA polymerisation is from _____ to _____ (indicate the polarity).
Match the following components with their roles in DNA replication:
Match the following components with their roles in DNA replication:
What is the role of deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates in DNA replication?
What is the role of deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates in DNA replication?
Replication in Eukaryotes occurs during the G-phase of the cell cycle.
Replication in Eukaryotes occurs during the G-phase of the cell cycle.
What is a consequence of a failure in cell division after DNA replication?
What is a consequence of a failure in cell division after DNA replication?
What is the primary role of the repressor in the lac operon?
What is the primary role of the repressor in the lac operon?
What is the total estimated cost of sequencing the human genome based on the initial estimate of $3 per base pair?
What is the total estimated cost of sequencing the human genome based on the initial estimate of $3 per base pair?
The initial year when the Human Genome Project was launched is __________.
The initial year when the Human Genome Project was launched is __________.
Which of the following is NOT considered an inducer for the lac operon?
Which of the following is NOT considered an inducer for the lac operon?
The repressor of the lac operon is synthesized only in response to lactose.
The repressor of the lac operon is synthesized only in response to lactose.
What is the estimated number of base pairs in the human genome?
What is the estimated number of base pairs in the human genome?
What does the Central dogma of molecular biology describe?
What does the Central dogma of molecular biology describe?
What is the name of the process where genetic information flows from RNA to DNA in some viruses?
What is the name of the process where genetic information flows from RNA to DNA in some viruses?
In prokaryotes like E. coli, DNA is organized in a region termed the __________.
In prokaryotes like E. coli, DNA is organized in a region termed the __________.
Match the following components with their descriptions:
Match the following components with their descriptions:
Which amino acids are histones rich in?
Which amino acids are histones rich in?
In eukaryotic cells, the packaging of DNA is less complex than in prokaryotic cells.
In eukaryotic cells, the packaging of DNA is less complex than in prokaryotic cells.
What structure is formed by the wrapping of negatively charged DNA around positively charged histone octamers?
What structure is formed by the wrapping of negatively charged DNA around positively charged histone octamers?
Euchromatin is transcriptionally inactive chromatin.
Euchromatin is transcriptionally inactive chromatin.
What genetic material did Frederick Griffith study in his experiments?
What genetic material did Frederick Griffith study in his experiments?
The repeating unit of chromatin is called a __________.
The repeating unit of chromatin is called a __________.
Match the types of chromatin to their characteristics:
Match the types of chromatin to their characteristics:
How many base pairs of DNA are typically contained in a nucleosome?
How many base pairs of DNA are typically contained in a nucleosome?
What forms the backbone of the DNA structure?
What forms the backbone of the DNA structure?
NHC proteins are primarily associated with the formation of nucleosomes.
NHC proteins are primarily associated with the formation of nucleosomes.
Who is credited with the discovery of nuclein?
Who is credited with the discovery of nuclein?
Adenine pairs with Cytosine in the DNA structure.
Adenine pairs with Cytosine in the DNA structure.
What is the distance between each base pair in the DNA double helix?
What is the distance between each base pair in the DNA double helix?
The two strands of DNA are __________ to each other.
The two strands of DNA are __________ to each other.
Match the DNA base pairs with their corresponding hydrogen bonds:
Match the DNA base pairs with their corresponding hydrogen bonds:
What is the pitch of the DNA helix?
What is the pitch of the DNA helix?
The Double Helix model was proposed before the year 1950.
The Double Helix model was proposed before the year 1950.
Who provided the X-ray diffraction data that helped in proposing the Double Helix model?
Who provided the X-ray diffraction data that helped in proposing the Double Helix model?
What is the primary role of the lac operon?
What is the primary role of the lac operon?
The z gene in the lac operon codes for a repressor protein.
The z gene in the lac operon codes for a repressor protein.
What does the term 'inducer' refer to in the context of the lac operon?
What does the term 'inducer' refer to in the context of the lac operon?
The i gene in the lac operon encodes a __________.
The i gene in the lac operon encodes a __________.
Match the following genes in the lac operon with their functions:
Match the following genes in the lac operon with their functions:
Regulatory proteins can act in which two ways?
Regulatory proteins can act in which two ways?
Operators are found only in eukaryotic gene regulation.
Operators are found only in eukaryotic gene regulation.
The lac operator specifically binds the __________ protein.
The lac operator specifically binds the __________ protein.
The genetic code is read in a discontinuous fashion.
The genetic code is read in a discontinuous fashion.
What is the function of the codon AUG in the genetic code?
What is the function of the codon AUG in the genetic code?
There are _____ stop codons in the genetic code.
There are _____ stop codons in the genetic code.
What was the conclusion drawn by Griffith regarding the R strain bacteria after experimenting with heat-killed S strain bacteria?
What was the conclusion drawn by Griffith regarding the R strain bacteria after experimenting with heat-killed S strain bacteria?
Who developed the enzymatic synthesis method for RNA with defined sequences?
Who developed the enzymatic synthesis method for RNA with defined sequences?
Avery and his colleagues determined that DNA is the hereditary material through their experiments.
Avery and his colleagues determined that DNA is the hereditary material through their experiments.
What does it mean for the genetic code to be degenerate?
What does it mean for the genetic code to be degenerate?
What did Hershey and Chase use to label the genetic material of bacteriophages in their experiment?
What did Hershey and Chase use to label the genetic material of bacteriophages in their experiment?
The heat-killed S strain bacteria were unable to __________ the mice when injected alone.
The heat-killed S strain bacteria were unable to __________ the mice when injected alone.
The genetic code is universal across all forms of life.
The genetic code is universal across all forms of life.
Match the following researchers with their contributions to the understanding of genetic material:
Match the following researchers with their contributions to the understanding of genetic material:
Which of the following enzymes inhibited transformation, suggesting the role of DNA?
Which of the following enzymes inhibited transformation, suggesting the role of DNA?
The transforming principle identified by Avery and his team was shown to be a protein.
The transforming principle identified by Avery and his team was shown to be a protein.
What is one reason some biologists were initially skeptical about DNA being the genetic material?
What is one reason some biologists were initially skeptical about DNA being the genetic material?
What is the primary function of histones in eukaryotic cells?
What is the primary function of histones in eukaryotic cells?
What is the name of the region in prokaryotic cells where DNA is organized?
What is the name of the region in prokaryotic cells where DNA is organized?
In some viruses, the genetic information flows from RNA to __________.
In some viruses, the genetic information flows from RNA to __________.
Match the following molecules with their roles:
Match the following molecules with their roles:
What is the approximate length of DNA in a typical mammalian cell?
What is the approximate length of DNA in a typical mammalian cell?
E. coli DNA is not organized within a defined nucleus.
E. coli DNA is not organized within a defined nucleus.
What basic amino acids are histones rich in?
What basic amino acids are histones rich in?
In the Hershey-Chase experiment, which component of the virus was determined to be the genetic material?
In the Hershey-Chase experiment, which component of the virus was determined to be the genetic material?
RNA serves as the genetic material in most organisms.
RNA serves as the genetic material in most organisms.
What are the two chemical differences between DNA and RNA?
What are the two chemical differences between DNA and RNA?
A molecule that can act as genetic material must fulfill criteria for replication, stability, mutation, and expression of __________ characters.
A molecule that can act as genetic material must fulfill criteria for replication, stability, mutation, and expression of __________ characters.
Which of the following correctly states the role of DNA in organisms?
Which of the following correctly states the role of DNA in organisms?
Proteins are considered essential genetic material in all living organisms.
Proteins are considered essential genetic material in all living organisms.
What did the results of the Hershey-Chase experiment conclude about the transfer of genetic material?
What did the results of the Hershey-Chase experiment conclude about the transfer of genetic material?
What process was proposed by Watson and Crick for DNA replication?
What process was proposed by Watson and Crick for DNA replication?
RNA serves both as genetic material and a catalyst.
RNA serves both as genetic material and a catalyst.
What is the primary reason DNA is more stable than RNA?
What is the primary reason DNA is more stable than RNA?
During DNA replication, each new DNA molecule contains one _______ strand and one newly synthesized strand.
During DNA replication, each new DNA molecule contains one _______ strand and one newly synthesized strand.
What type of method was used by Meselson and Stahl to prove semiconservative replication?
What type of method was used by Meselson and Stahl to prove semiconservative replication?
What characteristic of DNA helps it resist changes?
What characteristic of DNA helps it resist changes?
DNA replication creates two identical double-stranded DNA molecules each containing both original strands.
DNA replication creates two identical double-stranded DNA molecules each containing both original strands.
What is the start codon in mRNA that signals the beginning of translation?
What is the start codon in mRNA that signals the beginning of translation?
Untranslated regions (UTR) are present only at the 5' end of mRNA.
Untranslated regions (UTR) are present only at the 5' end of mRNA.
What role does the release factor play in translation?
What role does the release factor play in translation?
The sequence of mRNA that codes for a polypeptide is flanked by the start codon (AUG) and the __________.
The sequence of mRNA that codes for a polypeptide is flanked by the start codon (AUG) and the __________.
What is a function of the ribosome during protein synthesis?
What is a function of the ribosome during protein synthesis?
In eukaryotes, gene expression can only be regulated at the transcriptional level.
In eukaryotes, gene expression can only be regulated at the transcriptional level.
The enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of lactose into galactose and glucose is called __________.
The enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of lactose into galactose and glucose is called __________.
Which RNA polymerase is responsible for transcribing mRNA?
Which RNA polymerase is responsible for transcribing mRNA?
Splicing is the process by which exons are removed from the primary transcript.
Splicing is the process by which exons are removed from the primary transcript.
What unusual nucleotide is added during the capping of hnRNA?
What unusual nucleotide is added during the capping of hnRNA?
A fully processed hnRNA that is transported out of the nucleus is called __________.
A fully processed hnRNA that is transported out of the nucleus is called __________.
What is the primary process that allows for the removal of introns from the primary transcript?
What is the primary process that allows for the removal of introns from the primary transcript?
The genetic code has a direct complementarity between nucleotides and amino acids.
The genetic code has a direct complementarity between nucleotides and amino acids.
What is the significance of the presence of introns in the genetic arrangement?
What is the significance of the presence of introns in the genetic arrangement?
What is found in the human genome that contributes to genetic variability?
What is found in the human genome that contributes to genetic variability?
The total estimated cost of the Human Genome Project was approximately _____ billion US dollars.
The total estimated cost of the Human Genome Project was approximately _____ billion US dollars.
What methods enabled the Human Genome Project to become a possibility?
What methods enabled the Human Genome Project to become a possibility?
Which nucleic acid is preferred for the storage of genetic information due to its stability?
Which nucleic acid is preferred for the storage of genetic information due to its stability?
RNA is chemically less reactive than DNA.
RNA is chemically less reactive than DNA.
What was the first genetic material according to the discussed theories?
What was the first genetic material according to the discussed theories?
DNA and RNA both have the ability to __________.
DNA and RNA both have the ability to __________.
Match the following properties with the correct nucleic acids:
Match the following properties with the correct nucleic acids:
What chemical group contributes to the lability of RNA?
What chemical group contributes to the lability of RNA?
Thymine in DNA does not improve its stability compared to uracil in RNA.
Thymine in DNA does not improve its stability compared to uracil in RNA.
What role does RNA play in the synthesis of proteins?
What role does RNA play in the synthesis of proteins?
What did the Hershey-Chase experiment confirm as the genetic material?
What did the Hershey-Chase experiment confirm as the genetic material?
Proteins can serve as the genetic material in viruses.
Proteins can serve as the genetic material in viruses.
A genetic material must fulfill the criteria of being able to generate its __________.
A genetic material must fulfill the criteria of being able to generate its __________.
Match the following criteria for genetic material with their descriptions:
Match the following criteria for genetic material with their descriptions:
Which type of genetic material is found in some viruses?
Which type of genetic material is found in some viruses?
Only DNA has the ability to direct its duplication.
Only DNA has the ability to direct its duplication.
The material that passed from the virus to the bacteria was radioactive __________.
The material that passed from the virus to the bacteria was radioactive __________.
What process describes how DNA serves as a template to create new strands?
What process describes how DNA serves as a template to create new strands?
RNA is more stable than DNA in terms of genetic information storage.
RNA is more stable than DNA in terms of genetic information storage.
What year did Meselson and Stahl perform their key experiment on DNA replication?
What year did Meselson and Stahl perform their key experiment on DNA replication?
DNA evolved from RNA due to its __________ nature.
DNA evolved from RNA due to its __________ nature.
Match the scientists with their contributions to the understanding of DNA.
Match the scientists with their contributions to the understanding of DNA.
Which feature of DNA contributes to its ability to repair itself?
Which feature of DNA contributes to its ability to repair itself?
DNA replication is proven to occur in higher organisms such as plants and humans.
DNA replication is proven to occur in higher organisms such as plants and humans.
In semiconservative DNA replication, each new molecule contains one __________ and one newly synthesized strand.
In semiconservative DNA replication, each new molecule contains one __________ and one newly synthesized strand.
What is the primary role of DNA in most organisms?
What is the primary role of DNA in most organisms?
What is the primary use of BAC and YAC vectors in sequencing?
What is the primary use of BAC and YAC vectors in sequencing?
RNA is primarily responsible for storing genetic information in most organisms.
RNA is primarily responsible for storing genetic information in most organisms.
The human genome consists of over 30,000 genes, with 99.9 percent of nucleotide bases being the same in all people.
The human genome consists of over 30,000 genes, with 99.9 percent of nucleotide bases being the same in all people.
What are the two types of nucleic acids found in living systems?
What are the two types of nucleic acids found in living systems?
What significant process was developed by Frederick Sanger?
What significant process was developed by Frederick Sanger?
The complete nucleotide sequence of the human ______ has set in a new era of genomics.
The complete nucleotide sequence of the human ______ has set in a new era of genomics.
Match the following roles with their corresponding nucleic acids:
Match the following roles with their corresponding nucleic acids:
The largest known human gene is __________, which contains 2.4 million bases.
The largest known human gene is __________, which contains 2.4 million bases.
Match the following types of DNA hosts with their respective vectors:
Match the following types of DNA hosts with their respective vectors:
Which of the following describes the structure of DNA?
Which of the following describes the structure of DNA?
Which of the following statements accurately describes the human genome?
Which of the following statements accurately describes the human genome?
Transcription is the process of synthesizing RNA from DNA.
Transcription is the process of synthesizing RNA from DNA.
Human chromosome 1 was the first chromosome to be sequenced.
Human chromosome 1 was the first chromosome to be sequenced.
Nucleotides are linked together to form a long polymer known as ______.
Nucleotides are linked together to form a long polymer known as ______.
What technological advancement was required to align the sequences from DNA fragments?
What technological advancement was required to align the sequences from DNA fragments?
What is the primary function of the ribosome in the process of translation?
What is the primary function of the ribosome in the process of translation?
UTRs are translated into proteins during protein synthesis.
UTRs are translated into proteins during protein synthesis.
What initiates the binding of the ribosome to the mRNA during the translation process?
What initiates the binding of the ribosome to the mRNA during the translation process?
The enzyme beta-galactosidase in E.coli is synthesized to catalyze the hydrolysis of __________.
The enzyme beta-galactosidase in E.coli is synthesized to catalyze the hydrolysis of __________.
Which of the following is NOT a level of gene expression regulation in eukaryotes?
Which of the following is NOT a level of gene expression regulation in eukaryotes?
Release factors bind to stop codons to initiate the translation process.
Release factors bind to stop codons to initiate the translation process.
Why is the regulation of gene expression important during embryonic development?
Why is the regulation of gene expression important during embryonic development?
What is the average rate of polymerization during E. coli DNA replication?
What is the average rate of polymerization during E. coli DNA replication?
DNA ligase is responsible for initiating the process of DNA replication.
DNA ligase is responsible for initiating the process of DNA replication.
What process occurs at the origin of replication in DNA?
What process occurs at the origin of replication in DNA?
The two terminal phosphates in a deoxynucleoside triphosphate are __________ phosphates.
The two terminal phosphates in a deoxynucleoside triphosphate are __________ phosphates.
Match the following enzymes with their functions in DNA replication:
Match the following enzymes with their functions in DNA replication:
Replication in the E. coli DNA occurs randomly at any location along the DNA.
Replication in the E. coli DNA occurs randomly at any location along the DNA.
What chromosome anomaly occurs if cell division fails after DNA replication?
What chromosome anomaly occurs if cell division fails after DNA replication?
What technique is used to find variations in individuals at the DNA level?
What technique is used to find variations in individuals at the DNA level?
The Human Genome Project aimed to sequence every base in the chicken genome.
The Human Genome Project aimed to sequence every base in the chicken genome.
What is the main function of the lac operon in bacteria?
What is the main function of the lac operon in bacteria?
The sequence of the complementary DNA strand to 5' -ATGCATGC-3' is __________.
The sequence of the complementary DNA strand to 5' -ATGCATGC-3' is __________.
Why does the lac operon shut down after some time following the addition of lactose?
Why does the lac operon shut down after some time following the addition of lactose?
What was one significant outcome of the Human Genome Project?
What was one significant outcome of the Human Genome Project?
During translation, ribosomes play an essential role in __________.
During translation, ribosomes play an essential role in __________.
What material served as genetic material in the Hershey-Chase experiment?
What material served as genetic material in the Hershey-Chase experiment?
Radioactive proteins entered the bacteria in the Hershey-Chase experiment.
Radioactive proteins entered the bacteria in the Hershey-Chase experiment.
A molecule that can serve as genetic material must be able to undergo __________.
A molecule that can serve as genetic material must be able to undergo __________.
Match the following viral types with their genetic material:
Match the following viral types with their genetic material:
Which of the following characteristics is NOT required for a genetic material?
Which of the following characteristics is NOT required for a genetic material?
DNA is the only genetic material found in all organisms.
DNA is the only genetic material found in all organisms.
In the Hershey-Chase experiment, the viral coats were removed from the bacteria using a __________.
In the Hershey-Chase experiment, the viral coats were removed from the bacteria using a __________.
What is the range of sizes for Variable Number of Tandem Repeats (VNTR)?
What is the range of sizes for Variable Number of Tandem Repeats (VNTR)?
DNA fingerprinting can produce different patterns for identical twins.
DNA fingerprinting can produce different patterns for identical twins.
The technique of DNA fingerprinting relies heavily on ________ as a probe that indicates high polymorphism.
The technique of DNA fingerprinting relies heavily on ________ as a probe that indicates high polymorphism.
Which of these steps is NOT a part of the DNA fingerprinting process?
Which of these steps is NOT a part of the DNA fingerprinting process?
A higher degree of polymorphism in DNA enhances the uniqueness of DNA fingerprints.
A higher degree of polymorphism in DNA enhances the uniqueness of DNA fingerprints.
What causes the repressor of the lac operon to be inactivated?
What causes the repressor of the lac operon to be inactivated?
What system regulates the expression of the lac operon?
What system regulates the expression of the lac operon?
The estimated cost of the Human Genome Project was approximately _____ billion US dollars.
The estimated cost of the Human Genome Project was approximately _____ billion US dollars.
Match the following components involved in the lac operon with their functions:
Match the following components involved in the lac operon with their functions:
Glucose is an effective inducer for the lac operon.
Glucose is an effective inducer for the lac operon.
Approximately how many base pairs does the human genome contain?
Approximately how many base pairs does the human genome contain?
What is the primary purpose of using cloning vectors like BAC and YAC in sequencing?
What is the primary purpose of using cloning vectors like BAC and YAC in sequencing?
The average size of a human gene is approximately 1,500 bases.
The average size of a human gene is approximately 1,500 bases.
What does the term 'polymorphism' refer to in the context of the human genome?
What does the term 'polymorphism' refer to in the context of the human genome?
The last of the 24 human chromosomes to be sequenced was chromosome ______.
The last of the 24 human chromosomes to be sequenced was chromosome ______.
Which of the following statements about the human genome is correct?
Which of the following statements about the human genome is correct?
Who developed the method used for sequencing that the automated DNA sequencers utilize?
Who developed the method used for sequencing that the automated DNA sequencers utilize?
It is estimated that the human genome contains 40,000 to 70,000 genes.
It is estimated that the human genome contains 40,000 to 70,000 genes.
The DNA polymerases can initiate the process of replication on their own.
The DNA polymerases can initiate the process of replication on their own.
What are the small openings in the DNA helix where replication occurs called?
What are the small openings in the DNA helix where replication occurs called?
Deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates serve dual purposes as substrates and provide __________ for polymerization reactions.
Deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates serve dual purposes as substrates and provide __________ for polymerization reactions.
Match the following components involved in DNA replication with their functions:
Match the following components involved in DNA replication with their functions:
What happens if there is a failure in cell division after DNA replication?
What happens if there is a failure in cell division after DNA replication?
In E. coli, the replication process is discontinuous on both strands of DNA.
In E. coli, the replication process is discontinuous on both strands of DNA.
What is the primary structure of tRNA described as?
What is the primary structure of tRNA described as?
TRNA has specific anticodons for each amino acid.
TRNA has specific anticodons for each amino acid.
What is the process of attaching the correct amino acid to the tRNA called?
What is the process of attaching the correct amino acid to the tRNA called?
The bond that links amino acids in a polypeptide is known as a __________.
The bond that links amino acids in a polypeptide is known as a __________.
What molecule is required for the charging of tRNA?
What molecule is required for the charging of tRNA?
There are tRNAs specifically for stop codons.
There are tRNAs specifically for stop codons.
What type of bonding is favored energetically when charged tRNAs come close together?
What type of bonding is favored energetically when charged tRNAs come close together?
What is the result of a classical example of point mutation in the beta globin chain?
What is the result of a classical example of point mutation in the beta globin chain?
Frameshift mutations occur when the reading frame of DNA is altered due to the insertion or deletion of one or two bases.
Frameshift mutations occur when the reading frame of DNA is altered due to the insertion or deletion of one or two bases.
The insertion of three or more bases results in a mutation that does not alter the _________ from that point onward.
The insertion of three or more bases results in a mutation that does not alter the _________ from that point onward.
The Human Genome Project aimed to sequence every gene in the human genome.
The Human Genome Project aimed to sequence every gene in the human genome.
What happens when one or two bases are inserted or deleted from a gene?
What happens when one or two bases are inserted or deleted from a gene?
Francis Crick is credited with the discovery of tRNA as an adapter molecule needed to read the genetic code.
Francis Crick is credited with the discovery of tRNA as an adapter molecule needed to read the genetic code.
What is the technique used to analyze variations in individuals of a population at the DNA level?
What is the technique used to analyze variations in individuals of a population at the DNA level?
What is sickle cell anemia caused by?
What is sickle cell anemia caused by?
The process by which complementary strands of DNA are formed during replication is known as __________.
The process by which complementary strands of DNA are formed during replication is known as __________.
Match the following nucleic acids with their functions:
Match the following nucleic acids with their functions:
Why does the lac operon shut down some time after the addition of lactose?
Why does the lac operon shut down some time after the addition of lactose?
DNA fingerprinting is solely used in forensic science.
DNA fingerprinting is solely used in forensic science.
What type of polymerase synthesizes RNA from a DNA template?
What type of polymerase synthesizes RNA from a DNA template?
Which of the following is a commonly used vector in cloning DNA fragments?
Which of the following is a commonly used vector in cloning DNA fragments?
The total number of genes in the human genome is estimated to be between 80,000 and 140,000.
The total number of genes in the human genome is estimated to be between 80,000 and 140,000.
What principle did automated DNA sequencers primarily operate on?
What principle did automated DNA sequencers primarily operate on?
Match the following terms related to DNA cloning with their descriptions:
Match the following terms related to DNA cloning with their descriptions:
The largest known human gene is dystrophin, which consists of 2.4 million bases.
The largest known human gene is dystrophin, which consists of 2.4 million bases.
What is the significance of overlapping regions in DNA sequencing?
What is the significance of overlapping regions in DNA sequencing?
What was one of the main goals of the Human Genome Project?
What was one of the main goals of the Human Genome Project?
The Human Genome Project was completed in 2003.
The Human Genome Project was completed in 2003.
What is the significance of sequencing DNA variations among individuals?
What is the significance of sequencing DNA variations among individuals?
The Human Genome Project involved the sequencing of approximately _____ base pairs in human DNA.
The Human Genome Project involved the sequencing of approximately _____ base pairs in human DNA.
Match the following organisms with their significance in DNA sequencing:
Match the following organisms with their significance in DNA sequencing:
Which major organization was NOT mentioned as a contributor to the Human Genome Project?
Which major organization was NOT mentioned as a contributor to the Human Genome Project?
The methodologies of the Human Genome Project included only one major approach for sequencing.
The methodologies of the Human Genome Project included only one major approach for sequencing.
What are Expressed Sequence Tags (ESTs)?
What are Expressed Sequence Tags (ESTs)?
Flashcards
DNA
DNA
A type of nucleic acid found in all living organisms, containing genetic instructions.
RNA
RNA
A type of nucleic acid found in all living organisms, involved in protein synthesis.
Nucleotide
Nucleotide
A repeating unit of DNA or RNA, consisting of a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group.
Cytosine
Cytosine
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Thymine
Thymine
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Uracil
Uracil
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Phosphodiester Linkage
Phosphodiester Linkage
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Polynucleotide Chain
Polynucleotide Chain
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Codon
Codon
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Genetic Code is degenerate
Genetic Code is degenerate
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Contiguous Reading
Contiguous Reading
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Stop Codon
Stop Codon
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Universal Genetic Code
Universal Genetic Code
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Initiator Codon
Initiator Codon
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Mutations
Mutations
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Mutations and Protein Function
Mutations and Protein Function
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Genome Sequencing
Genome Sequencing
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DNA Fragments
DNA Fragments
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BAC (Bacterial Artificial Chromosomes)
BAC (Bacterial Artificial Chromosomes)
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YAC (Yeast Artificial Chromosomes)
YAC (Yeast Artificial Chromosomes)
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Automated DNA Sequencing
Automated DNA Sequencing
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Overlapping DNA Fragments
Overlapping DNA Fragments
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Genome Assembly Software
Genome Assembly Software
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Genome Annotation
Genome Annotation
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What is the anticodon loop in tRNA?
What is the anticodon loop in tRNA?
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What does the amino acid acceptor end of tRNA do?
What does the amino acid acceptor end of tRNA do?
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Are tRNA molecules specific?
Are tRNA molecules specific?
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What is initiator tRNA and what does it do?
What is initiator tRNA and what does it do?
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What are stop codons and how do they work?
What are stop codons and how do they work?
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What is translation?
What is translation?
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What is a peptide bond and how is it formed?
What is a peptide bond and how is it formed?
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What are ribosomes and what do they do?
What are ribosomes and what do they do?
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Repetitive sequences
Repetitive sequences
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What are repetitive sequences?
What are repetitive sequences?
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What is the significance of repetitive sequences?
What is the significance of repetitive sequences?
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What are SNPs (pronounced as 'snips')?
What are SNPs (pronounced as 'snips')?
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Why are SNPs important?
Why are SNPs important?
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What are the challenges of comparing DNA sequences?
What are the challenges of comparing DNA sequences?
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What is DNA fingerprinting?
What is DNA fingerprinting?
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How does DNA fingerprinting help us understand individual differences?
How does DNA fingerprinting help us understand individual differences?
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DNA Polymorphism
DNA Polymorphism
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Variable Number of Tandem Repeats (VNTR)
Variable Number of Tandem Repeats (VNTR)
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DNA Fingerprinting
DNA Fingerprinting
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Gel Electrophoresis
Gel Electrophoresis
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Southern Blot Hybridisation
Southern Blot Hybridisation
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Radiolabelled VNTR Probe
Radiolabelled VNTR Probe
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Monozygotic (Identical) Twins and DNA Fingerprinting
Monozygotic (Identical) Twins and DNA Fingerprinting
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PCR in DNA Fingerprinting
PCR in DNA Fingerprinting
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What is a polynucleotide chain?
What is a polynucleotide chain?
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What are purines and pyrimidines?
What are purines and pyrimidines?
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What is a nucleoside?
What is a nucleoside?
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What is a nucleotide?
What is a nucleotide?
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How are nucleotides linked together?
How are nucleotides linked together?
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How is a polynucleotide chain formed?
How is a polynucleotide chain formed?
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What is the backbone of a polynucleotide chain?
What is the backbone of a polynucleotide chain?
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Who discovered DNA and what was it originally called?
Who discovered DNA and what was it originally called?
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Central Dogma
Central Dogma
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DNA Stability
DNA Stability
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Constant DNA Distance
Constant DNA Distance
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DNA Packaging
DNA Packaging
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Histones
Histones
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Reverse Transcription
Reverse Transcription
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RNA's past role
RNA's past role
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DNA's evolution
DNA's evolution
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DNA replication
DNA replication
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Semiconservative replication
Semiconservative replication
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Watson-Crick replication model
Watson-Crick replication model
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Meselson-Stahl experiment
Meselson-Stahl experiment
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Template-based DNA replication
Template-based DNA replication
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DNA synthesis
DNA synthesis
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Promoter
Promoter
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Terminator
Terminator
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Template Strand
Template Strand
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Coding Strand
Coding Strand
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Cistron
Cistron
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Intron
Intron
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What is the amino acid acceptor end of tRNA?
What is the amino acid acceptor end of tRNA?
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What are the stop codons and how do they work?
What are the stop codons and how do they work?
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Transformation
Transformation
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DNA is the genetic material
DNA is the genetic material
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Bacteriophages
Bacteriophages
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Hershey and Chase experiment
Hershey and Chase experiment
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Heat-killing bacteria
Heat-killing bacteria
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Protease
Protease
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Replication Rate
Replication Rate
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Origin of Replication
Origin of Replication
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DNA Ligase
DNA Ligase
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Replication Fork
Replication Fork
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Polyploidy
Polyploidy
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DNA Polymerase
DNA Polymerase
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Deoxynucleoside Triphosphates
Deoxynucleoside Triphosphates
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RNA Polymerase II
RNA Polymerase II
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RNA Polymerase III
RNA Polymerase III
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Splicing
Splicing
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Capping
Capping
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Tailing
Tailing
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Genetic Code
Genetic Code
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Translation
Translation
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What is a translational unit in mRNA?
What is a translational unit in mRNA?
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What are Untranslated Regions (UTRs)?
What are Untranslated Regions (UTRs)?
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What does the ribosome act as?
What does the ribosome act as?
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What is the elongation phase of protein synthesis?
What is the elongation phase of protein synthesis?
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What is a release factor?
What is a release factor?
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What is gene expression regulation?
What is gene expression regulation?
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What is the transcriptional level of gene expression?
What is the transcriptional level of gene expression?
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What does the coordinated regulation of gene expression lead to?
What does the coordinated regulation of gene expression lead to?
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Transcriptional Initiation Control
Transcriptional Initiation Control
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Operator Region
Operator Region
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Activators
Activators
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Repressors
Repressors
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Inducer
Inducer
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Lac Operon
Lac Operon
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Lac Operator
Lac Operator
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Frameshift Mutation
Frameshift Mutation
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In-frame Insertion or Deletion
In-frame Insertion or Deletion
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tRNA (Transfer RNA)
tRNA (Transfer RNA)
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Point Mutation
Point Mutation
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Frameshift Insertion or Deletion
Frameshift Insertion or Deletion
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Transcription
Transcription
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Histone Octamer
Histone Octamer
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Chromatin
Chromatin
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Euchromatin
Euchromatin
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Heterochromatin
Heterochromatin
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Messenger RNA (mRNA)
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
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Initiator tRNA
Initiator tRNA
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Peptide bond
Peptide bond
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Anticodon loop
Anticodon loop
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Amino acid acceptor end
Amino acid acceptor end
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Ribosome
Ribosome
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Translational Unit
Translational Unit
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Untranslated Regions (UTRs)
Untranslated Regions (UTRs)
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Ribosome (23S rRNA in bacteria)
Ribosome (23S rRNA in bacteria)
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Gene Regulation
Gene Regulation
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Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs)
Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs)
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Challenges of comparing DNA sequences
Challenges of comparing DNA sequences
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Human Genome Project (HGP)
Human Genome Project (HGP)
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Impact of the HGP on biological research
Impact of the HGP on biological research
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Deriving knowledge from DNA sequences
Deriving knowledge from DNA sequences
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Gene content across chromosomes
Gene content across chromosomes
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Human Genome
Human Genome
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DNA Fragmentation
DNA Fragmentation
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DNA Sequencing
DNA Sequencing
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SNP (Single Nucleotide Polymorphism)
SNP (Single Nucleotide Polymorphism)
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How are nucleotides connected?
How are nucleotides connected?
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Who discovered DNA?
Who discovered DNA?
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What is DNA packaging?
What is DNA packaging?
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Transcription Unit
Transcription Unit
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Number of Human Genes
Number of Human Genes
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Human Genetic Similarity
Human Genetic Similarity
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Repetitive DNA Sequences
Repetitive DNA Sequences
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Ribosome as a catalyst
Ribosome as a catalyst
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Gene Expression Regulation
Gene Expression Regulation
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Transcriptional Level Regulation
Transcriptional Level Regulation
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Processing Level Regulation
Processing Level Regulation
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mRNA Transport Regulation
mRNA Transport Regulation
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Translational Level Regulation
Translational Level Regulation
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Charging of tRNA (aminoacylation)
Charging of tRNA (aminoacylation)
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A and P sites (on the ribosome)
A and P sites (on the ribosome)
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Hershey-Chase experiment
Hershey-Chase experiment
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Ribosomal Catalysis
Ribosomal Catalysis
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Translation Elongation
Translation Elongation
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Release Factor
Release Factor
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Lactose
Lactose
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Developmental Gene Regulation
Developmental Gene Regulation
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What is DNA?
What is DNA?
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What is RNA?
What is RNA?
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How do DNA bases pair?
How do DNA bases pair?
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How does DNA replicate?
How does DNA replicate?
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What is a gene?
What is a gene?
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What is transcription?
What is transcription?
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Why is transcription regulated?
Why is transcription regulated?
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Transcription Initiation
Transcription Initiation
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Regulatory Proteins
Regulatory Proteins
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Operators
Operators
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Lac Repressor
Lac Repressor
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Structural Genes
Structural Genes
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DNA structure
DNA structure
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Complementary base pairing
Complementary base pairing
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Uniform distance in DNA helix
Uniform distance in DNA helix
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Positive regulation
Positive regulation
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Negative regulation
Negative regulation
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Elongation Phase of Translation
Elongation Phase of Translation
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Regulation of Gene Expression
Regulation of Gene Expression
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Metabolic, Physiological, and Environmental Regulation
Metabolic, Physiological, and Environmental Regulation
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Exons
Exons
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Repetitive sequences in the genome
Repetitive sequences in the genome
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What was the Human Genome Project?
What was the Human Genome Project?
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Impact of the HGP
Impact of the HGP
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What did the Human Genome Project discover about repetitive sequences?
What did the Human Genome Project discover about repetitive sequences?
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What are single-base DNA differences (SNPs) and why are they important?
What are single-base DNA differences (SNPs) and why are they important?
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Why is DNA fingerprinting important for comparing DNA?
Why is DNA fingerprinting important for comparing DNA?
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What is a Codon?
What is a Codon?
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Why is the genetic code degenerate?
Why is the genetic code degenerate?
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What are Stop Codons?
What are Stop Codons?
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What is the role of AUG?
What is the role of AUG?
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What are mutations?
What are mutations?
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Why is the genetic code considered nearly universal?
Why is the genetic code considered nearly universal?
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How is the genetic code read?
How is the genetic code read?
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How did Har Gobind Khorana contribute to understanding the genetic code?
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Genetic differences and phenotypic variation
Genetic differences and phenotypic variation
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Whole-genome analysis
Whole-genome analysis
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Gene and protein interaction networks
Gene and protein interaction networks
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Future challenges of the Human Genome Project
Future challenges of the Human Genome Project
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Non-coding DNA
Non-coding DNA
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Lac Operon Induction
Lac Operon Induction
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Genome
Genome
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DNA Structure Discovery
DNA Structure Discovery
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Base Pairing in DNA
Base Pairing in DNA
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Anti-parallel DNA Strands
Anti-parallel DNA Strands
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Double Helix Structure
Double Helix Structure
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DNA Helix Dimensions
DNA Helix Dimensions
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Hydrogen Bonds in DNA
Hydrogen Bonds in DNA
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DNA Backbone and Bases
DNA Backbone and Bases
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What is DNA's role in genetics?
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What is Transformation?
What is Transformation?
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What are bacteriophages?
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What is the Hershey and Chase experiment?
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What is heat-killing bacteria?
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What is a protease?
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What is DNA polymerase?
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What is the role of deoxynucleoside triphosphates in replication?
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Griffith's Experiment
Griffith's Experiment
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Genetic Material
Genetic Material
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Gene expression regulation in prokaryotes
Gene expression regulation in prokaryotes
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Regulatory proteins (activators and repressors)
Regulatory proteins (activators and repressors)
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i gene (inhibitor gene)
i gene (inhibitor gene)
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z gene (beta-galactosidase)
z gene (beta-galactosidase)
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y gene (permease)
y gene (permease)
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Degeneracy of the genetic code
Degeneracy of the genetic code
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Contiguous reading of the genetic code
Contiguous reading of the genetic code
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Dual function of AUG
Dual function of AUG
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Mutations in the genetic code
Mutations in the genetic code
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Universality of the genetic code
Universality of the genetic code
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What did the Hershey-Chase experiment prove?
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Why is DNA the main genetic material?
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What are the criteria for a molecule to act as genetic material?
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Describe the structure of DNA.
Describe the structure of DNA.
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What is the mechanism of DNA replication?
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How is RNA synthesized?
How is RNA synthesized?
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How are proteins synthesized?
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What are mutations and how do they occur?
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Deoxynucleoside Triphosphates (dNTPs)
Deoxynucleoside Triphosphates (dNTPs)
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Peptide bond formation
Peptide bond formation
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Translational unit in mRNA
Translational unit in mRNA
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Transcriptional Level
Transcriptional Level
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Processing Level
Processing Level
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Transport of mRNA
Transport of mRNA
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What is the structure of DNA?
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How are the two strands of DNA oriented?
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What is DNA replication?
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How does DNA replication work?
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What is the genetic code?
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What happens during translation?
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What is the significance of the human genome project?
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How did the Hershey-Chase Experiment work?
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What are the criteria for a molecule to be considered genetic material?
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Why is DNA the main genetic material, while RNA plays a dynamic role?
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What are the two key chemical differences between DNA and RNA?
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How is the DNA double helix stabilized?
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How is DNA packaged in cells?
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What is the semiconservative model of DNA replication?
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Why is DNA a better genetic material than RNA?
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What makes RNA less stable than DNA?
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Why is DNA the primary genetic material?
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Why is RNA still important despite being less stable?
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Why is RNA better for transmitting genetic information?
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Why was RNA likely the first genetic material?
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How did DNA evolve from RNA?
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How did Griffith's experiment contribute to our understanding of DNA as the genetic material?
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What is semiconservative replication?
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What is the Watson-Crick model for DNA replication?
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What experiment proved that DNA replication is semiconservative?
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How does template-based DNA replication work?
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What is the role of DNA polymerase in replication?
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What is the replication fork?
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Human Genome Project
Human Genome Project
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Bacterial Artificial Chromosomes (BACs)
Bacterial Artificial Chromosomes (BACs)
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Yeast Artificial Chromosomes (YACs)
Yeast Artificial Chromosomes (YACs)
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Genome Assembly
Genome Assembly
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Criteria for genetic material
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RNA as genetic material
RNA as genetic material
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Okazaki fragments
Okazaki fragments
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What is an operon?
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What is the Lac Operon?
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What does lactose do in the Lac Operon?
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What role does the repressor protein play in the Lac Operon?
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What is negative regulation?
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What is genome assembly?
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What is genome annotation?
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Size of the Human Genome
Size of the Human Genome
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Replication Fork: Limited Separation
Replication Fork: Limited Separation
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Vector
Vector
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What is initiator tRNA?
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What is a peptide bond?
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What are ribosomes?
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What was the Human Genome Project (HGP)?
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What is Bioinformatics?
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What are the two main approaches used in the Human Genome Project?
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What is the estimated number of genes in the human genome?
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When was the Human Genome Project completed?
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Why is sequencing non-human organisms important?
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What is Southern blot hybridization?
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How are DNA strands complementary?
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What are the types of Nucleic Acid Polymerases?
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How did Hershey and Chase prove DNA is the genetic material?
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What is the difference between Repetitive DNA and Satellite DNA?
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Study Notes
Molecular Basis of Inheritance
- Inheritance patterns and their genetic basis were unclear in Mendel's time
- DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the genetic material for most organisms
- Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides
- DNA and RNA are two types of nucleic acids found in living systems
- DNA is the genetic material in most organisms, while RNA has additional messenger, adapter, structural, and catalytic roles.
- Nucleotides structure and linkage to form nucleic acid polymers were discussed in earlier classes.
- The structure of DNA (its replication, RNA formation from DNA [transcription], the genetic code for proteins, protein synthesis [translation], and the fundamentals of regulation) is discussed in the chapter.
- Determination of the complete human genome sequence in recent years has revolutionized genomics.
- The structure of a polynucleotide chain is composed of a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar (deoxyribose for DNA and ribose for RNA), and a phosphate group.
- Nitrogenous bases are either purines (adenine and guanine) or pyrimidines (cytosine, uracil, and thymine).
- The information flow from DNA, to RNA to protein synthesis is the basis of the central dogma.
- RNA is identified as the first genetic material, evolving to DNA given its greater stability, though RNA can also act as a genetic material for some viruses.
- The length of DNA is measured in base pairs (bp), which is about 3x109 bp for the human genome.
- The flow of information in some viruses can be reversed, from RNA to DNA.
- The complete nucleotide sequence of the human genome has led to a new era of genomics.
- The human genome contains 3164.7 million base pairs (bp).
- The average gene has roughly 3000 bases.
- The total number of genes estimated is around 30,000, though other estimates varied.
- Nearly 99.9% of human nucleotides are identical.
- More than 50% of genes have unknown functions.
- Less than 2% of the genome codes for proteins.
- The flow of genetic information in some viruses can be reversed, from RNA to DNA.
- There are 3 billion chemical base pairs (bp) in the haploid human genome.
- The estimated cost of the human genome project was 9 billion US dollars.
- The human genome project took 13 years to complete.
Structure of Polynucleotide Chain
- A nucleotide has three components: a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group.
- Purines: Adenine and Guanine
- Pyrimidines: Cytosine, Uracil, and Thymine
- A nucleoside is formed by linking a base to a sugar.
- A nucleotide is formed by linking a phosphate group to a nucleoside.
- Two nucleotides are joined through a phosphodiester linkage.
- The backbone of a polynucleotide chain is composed of sugar and phosphate groups.
- Bases are projected from the backbone.
DNA Structure
- DNA is a long polymer of deoxyribonucleotides.
- DNA has a double helix structure.
- The two polynucleotide chains run antiparallel to each other (one strand runs 5' to 3', and the other 3' to 5').
- The bases are paired through hydrogen bonding.
- Adenine pairs with Thymine, and Guanine pairs with Cytosine.
- The double helix has a constant distance between the two strands.
- The distance between base pairs in a helix is approximately 0.34 nm.
- There are roughly 10 base pairs in each turn.
The Genetic Material is DNA
- Hershey and Chase's experiment unequivocally proved that DNA is the genetic material.
- DNA was found to be radioactive in the bacteria but not proteins.
- The genetic material is stable and can be replicated.
- DNA is used more often for storage of genetic information due to its greater stability.
Properties of Genetic Material
- DNA acts as genetic material because it has the ability to replicate faithfully and also undergo changes (mutations).
- The genetic material must be stable chemically and structurally.
- The genetic material should be capable of slow changes (mutations) required for evolution.
- DNA is more stable than RNA.
Replication
- The central dogma of molecular biology shows the flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to protein.
- DNA replicates semiconservatively (each new strand has one original strand and one newly synthesized strand).
- The main enzyme is DNA-dependent DNA polymerase that uses a DNA template to catalyze the polymerization of deoxynucleotides.
- Replication is initiated from a specific origin site.
Transcription
- Transcription is the process of copying genetic information from one strand of DNA into RNA.
- The template strand of DNA provides the information to synthesize RNA.
- RNA is a complementary sequence of the template strand, with uracil instead of thymine.
- RNA polymerase is the enzyme that catalyzes transcription.
- Transcription takes place in the nucleus, where promoter, structural gene and terminator regions on the DNA define the transcription unit.
- Transcription is controlled via the presence or absence of an inducer.
The Genetic Code
- The genetic code specifies the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide.
- The code is triplet; three bases (a codon) specify a single amino acid.
- The genetic code is nearly universal (it applies to most organisms).
- Some amino acids are coded by more than one codon (the genetic code is degenerate).
- AUG codon codes for methionine and also acts as the initiator codon.
- There are stop codons (that do not code for amino acids, that signal termination of the protein synthesis).
Mutation
- Mutations lead to changes in the reading frame of the gene sequence.
- Mutations can result in various consequences, such as changes from the original amino acid sequence or loss of the amino acid
- Frame-shift mutations result from insertions or deletions of one or two bases, altering the entire downstream sequence.
tRNA- The Adapter Molecule
- tRNA molecules are required to bring amino acids to the site of translation.
- tRNA has an anticodon loop that recognizes the specific codon on mRNA.
- tRNA molecules carry the appropriate amino acid corresponding to a specific mRNA codon.
Translation
- Translation is when mRNA sequence is used to synthesize proteins.
- The ribosome is the organelle responsible for translation.
- The process of translation occurs in initiation, elongation, and termination phases.
- The sequence of amino acids is determined by the mRNA sequence of codons.
Regulation of Gene Expression
- Gene expression is regulated at multiple levels to control the synthesis rate of proteins.
- Bacteria use operons, which are groups of genes that are regulated together, to regulate transcription.
- Eukaryotic regulation occurs at several levels, including transcription, RNA processing, and RNA stability.
- Translation is also regulated in cells.
- One example of a controlled gene expression mechanism is the lac operon.
The Lac Operon
- The lac operon is a system in E. coli that controls the expression of genes needed to use lactose as an energy source.
- The lac operon is inducible and contains three critical genes, allowing for the production of enzymes relevant to lactose utilization when present in the environment.
- The operon is repressed when lactose is not available.
- The lac operon is described more extensively in this chapter, including the mechanisms and regulation via the inducer.
Human Genome Project
- The human genome project aimed to determine the DNA sequence of the human genome.
- Key goals of HGP include identification of all human genes, determination of the base pair sequence of the entire human genome, and creation of databases.
- The complete sequence of a human genome was finished in 2003.
- The project led to revolutionary new insights into genetic diversity, gene function, disease associations, and evolutionary relationships.
DNA Fingerprinting
- The main basis for DNA fingerprinting is the presence of repetitive DNA sequences, including Variable Number Tandem Repeats (VNTRs).
- DNA fingerprinting is used for identification of individuals and in forensic science applications.
- In DNA fingerprinting, the various differences in the repetitive sequences in the genes among individuals are used to differentiate between them.
- Several techniques are used to perform DNA fingerprinting, including Southern blotting and PCR amplification.
- The use of DNA fingerprinting has had an impact across numerous scientific and forensic disciplines.
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