Biology Chapter on Macromolecules
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Questions and Answers

What is the primary function of carbohydrates in living organisms?

  • To release energy during respiration (correct)
  • To serve as enzymes for biochemical reactions
  • To store genetic information
  • To insulate the body against cold

Which type of carbohydrate consists of two monosaccharides joined together?

  • Monosaccharides
  • Disaccharides (correct)
  • Polysaccharides
  • Oligosaccharides

What is the structural role of cellulose in plants?

  • To transport nutrients
  • To support cell walls and maintain shape (correct)
  • To store energy
  • To facilitate photosynthesis

What is a characteristic of lipids concerning their solubility?

<p>Insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What do proteins primarily consist of?

<p>Many amino acids (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which molecule serves as a key energy storage compound in animals?

<p>Glycogen (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen in carbohydrates?

<p>2:1 (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is not a type of lipid?

<p>Polysaccharides (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key requirement for active transport to function effectively?

<p>It requires energy. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does phagocytosis primarily allow cells to do?

<p>Engulf large particles. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During which phase of the cell cycle does DNA duplication occur?

<p>Interphase (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do chromosomes play in a cell?

<p>They carry and regulate genetic material. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during the prophase of mitosis?

<p>The nuclear membrane breaks down. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which is NOT a characteristic of active transport?

<p>It occurs through passive diffusion. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the chromosomes during metaphase?

<p>They arrange themselves at the spindle equator. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is formed as a result of phagocytosis after a cell engulfs a large particle?

<p>A phagosome (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During which stage of the cell cycle is genetic material dispersed and loosely packed?

<p>Interphase (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement is true regarding phagocytosis?

<p>It helps remove pathogens from the immune system. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What initial step is taken before placing the onion epidermis slide on the stage?

<p>Tear off the onion epidermis (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which adjustment knob should be used after switching to the high power objective?

<p>Fine adjustment knob (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of using iodine solution on the onion epidermis?

<p>To enhance cell structure visibility (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

When using the coarse adjustment knob, why is it advised to start with a lower power objective?

<p>To make focusing on the specimen easier (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does adjusting the diaphragm have on the visibility of the specimen?

<p>Controls the brightness of the image (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What should be done to avoid eyestrain during the observation process?

<p>Keep both eyes open (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic of cells is stated in cell theory?

<p>Cells are the basic unit of structure in living organisms (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following adjustments is NOT necessary when using a lower power objective?

<p>Fine adjustment (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which molecules can easily diffuse across the phospholipid bilayer?

<p>Nonpolar molecules (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason ions cannot easily cross the cell membrane?

<p>They are repelled by hydrophobic tails. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the fluid-mosaic model describe about cell membranes?

<p>Cell membranes are composed of a mosaic of proteins and lipids. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor would NOT affect the rate of diffusion?

<p>Cell membrane thickness (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does an increase in temperature affect diffusion?

<p>It increases kinetic energy and speeds up diffusion. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the role of the carbohydrate chain on a glycoprotein?

<p>Serves a signaling and antigenic function. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the diffusion rate if the concentration gradient increases?

<p>It increases. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which size of particles will diffuse faster at the same temperature?

<p>Small molecules (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What defines the 'fluid' aspect of the fluid-mosaic model?

<p>Lateral movement of phospholipids (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of molecule is indicated to pass through the cell membrane by diffusion?

<p>Hydrophobic molecules (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary site of glycolysis in cellular respiration?

<p>Cytoplasm (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which process generates the highest amount of ATP in aerobic respiration?

<p>Oxidative phosphorylation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During anaerobic respiration, which of the following is a common product generated by yeast?

<p>Ethanol (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What key compound is formed from pyruvate in the Krebs cycle?

<p>Acetyl CoA (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about the Krebs cycle is correct?

<p>It produces NADH and FADH. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of anaerobic bacteria in sewage treatment?

<p>Decompose organic matter into inorganic matter (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a consequence of fermentation in anaerobic respiration?

<p>Generation of ethanol or lactic acid (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which compound is utilized for energy during glycolysis?

<p>ATP (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which component is not directly involved in the Krebs cycle?

<p>Glucose (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following processes does not rely on anaerobic respiration?

<p>Photosynthesis (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is produced during the carbon fixation phase of the Calvin cycle?

<p>3-C compounds (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which molecule provides reducing power for the conversion of 3-C compounds to glucose?

<p>NADPH (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the overall photosynthesis equation, what are the reactants needed to produce glucose?

<p>Carbon dioxide, water, and light (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How many molecules of ATP are required to regenerate the carbon dioxide acceptor in the Calvin cycle?

<p>6 (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a product of photosynthesis?

<p>NADPH (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens during the reduction phase of the Calvin cycle?

<p>3-C compounds are converted to triose phosphate (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which two products of the Calvin cycle can be used to form storage molecules within the plant?

<p>Glucose and glycerol (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which process is primarily responsible for the formation of glucose from carbon dioxide during photosynthesis?

<p>Calvin cycle (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the end product of combining two molecules of triose phosphate in the Calvin cycle?

<p>6-C compound (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about photosynthesis products is incorrect?

<p>Fatty acids can be converted to glucose. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides

Simple sugars, single-ring structures, like glucose and fructose.

Carbohydrates: Disaccharides

Two monosaccharides joined together by condensation reactions.

Carbohydrates: Polysaccharides

Complex carbohydrates formed by many monosaccharides linked via condensation.

Carbohydrate Functions: Energy

Carbohydrates release energy when glucose is oxidized during respiration.

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Carbohydrate Functions: Storage

Carbohydrates store energy in plants (starch) and animals (glycogen).

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Lipids: Triglycerides

A type of lipid, or fat, composed of glycerol and fatty acids.

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Lipids: Insoluble in Water

Lipids are not soluble in water but mix with organic solvents.

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Proteins: Structure

Proteins are chains of amino acids; amino acids contain C,H,O,N (sometimes S).

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Coarse Adjustment Knob

Used to initially focus the specimen under a microscope.

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Lower Power Objective

Microscope lens with lower magnification, used for initial observation (e.g., 10X).

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High Power Objective

Microscope lens with higher magnification (e.g., 40X)

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Fine Adjustment Knob

Used for precise focusing of specimen, after initial focusing.

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Diaphragm / Condenser

Adjusts light intensity for clear observation.

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Specimen Centering

Moving the specimen to the center of the field of view.

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Inverted Image

Microscopic image appears reversed (upside-down and backwards).

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Cell Theory (basic tenet)

All living things are composed of cells.

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Active Transport

Movement of substances across a cell membrane from a region of low concentration to a region of high concentration, against the concentration gradient.

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Active Transport: Energy Requirement

Active transport needs energy provided by ATP to move substances against the concentration gradient.

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Active Transport: Carrier Proteins

Active transport utilizes specific carrier proteins embedded in the cell membrane to facilitate the movement of substances.

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Active Transport: Example

Glucose transport across the epithelium of the ileum is an example of active transport.

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Phagocytosis

The process where a cell engulfs a large particle using its plasma membrane, forming a phagosome.

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Phagocytosis: Energy

Phagocytosis requires energy from the cell to engulf the particle.

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Phagocytosis: Function in Nutrition

For some cells, phagocytosis is a way to obtain nutrients.

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Phagocytosis: Immune System Role

Phagocytosis is a crucial mechanism for the immune system to remove pathogens and cell debris.

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DNA's Role in Cells

DNA controls the production of proteins, such as enzymes, which catalyze chemical reactions within cells, thus regulating cell metabolism.

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Chromosomes and Cell Control

Chromosomes contain the genetic material of the cell and control all the activities within the cell.

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Cell Membrane: Nonpolar Molecules

Nonpolar molecules like oxygen and fatty acids can easily pass through the cell membrane because they dissolve in the phospholipid bilayer.

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Cell Membrane: Polar Molecules

Polar molecules, like ions, cannot pass through the cell membrane because they are repelled by the hydrophobic tails of the phospholipids.

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Glycoprotein: Function

Glycoproteins, with their carbohydrate chains, play important roles in signal reception and acting as antigens.

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Fluid Mosaic Model: Fluidity

The phospholipids in the cell membrane can move laterally, making the membrane fluid.

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Fluid Mosaic Model: Mosaic

The cell membrane is described as a mosaic because proteins are embedded within the phospholipid bilayer, like tiles in a mosaic.

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Levels of Organization: Cell

The basic unit of life, responsible for carrying out all life processes.

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Levels of Organization: Tissues

Groups of similar cells working together to perform a specific function.

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Levels of Organization: Organs

Structures made up of different tissues that work together to perform a complex function.

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Levels of Organization: Systems

Groups of organs working together to perform a major bodily function.

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Diffusion: Definition

The movement of molecules from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration.

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Anaerobic Respiration

Energy production without oxygen, using organic molecules as electron acceptors.

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Ethanol Production (Anaerobic)

Yeast produces ethanol (alcohol) during anaerobic respiration.

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Sewage Treatment (Anaerobic)

Anaerobic bacteria break down organic waste in sewage into simpler substances.

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Glycolysis

First stage of respiration, breaking down glucose into pyruvate in the cytoplasm.

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Kreb's Cycle

Second stage of respiration, breaking down pyruvate in the mitochondrial matrix.

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Oxidative Phosphorylation

Third stage of respiration, generating ATP using electron transport in the mitochondrial membrane.

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Mitochondrial Matrix

The inner fluid-filled space of a mitochondrion, where Krebs Cycle occurs.

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Mitochondrial Inner Membrane

Inner membrane of a mitochondrion, folded into cristae, hosting oxidative phosphorylation.

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ATP Production (Aerobic)

Aerobic respiration generates 38 ATP molecules per glucose molecule.

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Cytoplasm Role in Respiration

Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm, and it stores glycogen for energy.

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Carbon Fixation

The process of converting inorganic carbon dioxide (CO2) into organic compounds, primarily glucose, using energy from sunlight.

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Calvin Cycle

The series of biochemical reactions that occur in the stroma of chloroplasts during photosynthesis, where carbon dioxide is converted into glucose.

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Light-Independent Reactions

The reactions of photosynthesis that occur in the stroma of chloroplasts and don't directly require light, using energy from the light-dependent reactions.

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What is the role of ATP in the Calvin Cycle?

ATP provides the energy needed to power the reactions of the Calvin Cycle, including the regeneration of the carbon dioxide acceptor (RuBP).

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What is the role of NADPH in the Calvin Cycle?

NADPH provides reducing power (electrons) to reduce 3-carbon compounds (PGA) into glucose.

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What is the final product of the Calvin Cycle?

Glucose (C6H12O6), a simple sugar that provides energy and building blocks for the plant.

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Triose Phosphate

A 3-carbon sugar that is a product of the Calvin Cycle and serves as a precursor for other important molecules.

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Glycerol

A 3-carbon alcohol that combines with fatty acids to form lipids (fats) in the plant.

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Fatty acids

Long chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms that combine with glycerol to form lipids.

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Amino acids

The building blocks of proteins, containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur.

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Study Notes

Cellular Biology

  • Cells are the fundamental units of all living organisms
  • All living organisms are composed of one or more cells
  • Cells are the basic unit of structure and organization in organisms
  • Cells arise from pre-existing cells

Molecules of Life

  • Carbohydrates are made up of C, H, and O (H:O = 2:1)
  • Types of carbohydrates include monosaccharides (e.g., glucose, fructose), disaccharides (e.g., maltose, sucrose), and polysaccharides (e.g., starch, glycogen, cellulose)
  • Lipids are made up of C, H, and O (H:O > 2:1)
  • Types of lipids include triglycerides, steroids, and phospholipids
  • Proteins are made up of amino acids with C, H, O, N (sometimes S)
  • Proteins have various functions, including structural components, enzymes, and energy sources
  • Nucleic acids (e.g., DNA, RNA) are made up of C, H, O, N, and P
  • Water is the most abundant substance in living cells, acting as a solvent, cooling agent, and raw material for photosynthesis
  • Minerals are inorganic ions, such as calcium, phosphate, iron, magnesium, and nitrate

Cells – Cell Theory

  • All living organisms are composed of one or more cells
  • The cell is the basic unit of structure and organization in organisms
  • Cells arise from pre-existing cells

Cell – Animal Cell

  • Nucleus: controls cellular activities, stores genetic information, and is involved in protein synthesis
  • Cell membrane: selectively permeable and allows movement and transport of materials
  • Cytoplasm: holds many cell organelles and is the site for enzymatic reactions
  • Mitochondrion: generates energy through aerobic respiration, abundant in root hair cells & secretary cells
  • Rough endoplasmic reticulum: synthesizes and modifies proteins, abundant in secretary cells
  • Smooth endoplasmic reticulum: manufactures lipids, detoxes substances
  • Ribosomes: synthesize proteins

Cell – Plant Cell

  • Nucleus: controls cellular activities, stores genetic information, and is involved in protein synthesis, but smaller and peripherally placed
  • Cell wall: freely permeable, and contains water and dissolved mineral salts
  • Vacuole: stores cell sap, contains water and dissolved mineral salts
  • Chloroplast: carries out photosynthesis
  • Mitochondria: generates energy
  • Chloroplasts: carry out photosynthesis

Cell – Prokaryotic Cell

  • No nucleus
  • No mitochondria
  • Have cell walls
  • Have nucleic acids as genetic material
  • Have cell membranes
  • Have cytoplasm

Cell – Cell Membrane

  • Selectively permeable membrane
  • Composed of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded protein molecules
  • Some proteins act as antigens for cell recognition, enzymes, carriers for substances across membrane

Cell – Level of Organization

  • Cells → tissues → organs → systems → organisms

Movement of Substances Across the Membrane – Diffusion

  • Diffusion is the net movement of molecules from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration, driven by kinetic energy
  • Factors affecting the rate of diffusion include temperature and concentration gradient

Movement of Substances Across the Membrane – Osmosis

  • Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane from a region of high water potential to a region of low water potential.
  • Factors affecting the rate of osmosis include temperature and difference in water potential

Movement of Substances Across the Membrane – Active Transport

  • Active transport moves substances against the concentration gradient, from a region of low concentration to a region of high concentration and requires energy and carrier proteins.

Movement of Substances Across the Membrane – Phagocytosis

  • Phagocytosis is a process by which a cell engulfs a large particle by extending its plasma membrane to form a phagosome

Cell Cycle & Cell Division - Mitosis

  • Mitosis is a type of cell division that results in two identical daughter cells with the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell.

Cell Cycle & Cell Division - Meiosis

  • Meiosis produces four genetically unique haploid daughter cells from one diploid parent cell

Differences between Mitosis & Meiosis

  • Mitosis involves one division only, whereas meiosis involves two divisions
  • The daughter cells produced by mitosis are genetically identical to the parent cell.
  • The daughter cells formed from meiosis contain only half the genetic content of the parent cell

Metabolism - Catabolism and Anabolism

  • Catabolism is the breakdown of complex molecules to release energy, e.g digestion of starch by amylase
  • Anabolism is the synthesis of complex molecules from simpler molecules using energy, e.g production of lipase in the pancreas .

Metabolism – Enzymes

  • Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up the rate of chemical reactions in metabolism without being used up themselves
  • Enzyme properties: lower the activation energy of a reaction / reactions are reversible / enzyme is specific / enzyme has active sites /reusable

Metabolism- Factors Affecting Enzyme Reactions

  • Factors like temperature, pH, and substrate concentration affect the rate of enzyme-catalyzed reactions

Metabolism – Inhibitors

  • Competitive Inhibitors are similar to the substrate molecules; compete for active sites; rate of reaction increases to the same levels observed without inhibitors
  • Non-competitive Inhibitors are not similar to the substrates, bind with the enzyme at a different site/allosteric site. affecting the catalytic properties/activity cannot be overcome by increasing substrate concentration

Experiments with Enzymes

  • Experiments demonstrating enzyme activity can involve observing changes in colour, size, or the presence of precipitates.

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Test your knowledge on the primary functions and structures of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins in living organisms. This quiz covers key concepts such as energy storage and the roles of different macromolecules in nature.

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