Biology Chapter 22: Descent with Modification
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Questions and Answers

What is the age of the fossil records?

  • 1.5 billion years ago
  • 3.5 billion years ago (correct)
  • 4.5 billion years ago
  • 2.5 billion years ago

    • What is the study of the geographic distribution of species?

  • Microevolution
  • Biogeography (correct)
  • Genetics
  • Macroevolution

    • What is an example of analogous structures?

  • Hearts of humans and frogs
  • Streamlined body shapes of dolphins and sharks (correct)
  • Wings of birds and forelimbs of mammals
  • Eyes of humans and octopuses

    • What is the term for the evolution of similar features in distantly related groups?

    <p>Convergent evolution</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between microevolution and macroevolution?

    <p>Microevolution refers to changes within a species, while macroevolution refers to changes above the species level</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three mechanisms that directly cause allele frequency change?

    <p>Natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the Hardy-Weinberg equation used for?

    <p>To test whether a population is evolving</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process in which individuals with certain heritable traits are more likely to obtain mates?

    <p>Sexual selection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the movement of alleles among populations?

    <p>Gene flow</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the biological species concept based on?

    <p>Ability to interbreed and produce fertile offspring</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the primary role of Charles Darwin during his 5-year voyage on the HMS Beagle?

    <p>A naturalist</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which species accumulate differences from their ancestors?

    <p>Natural selection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following scientists did not influence Darwin's ideas about evolution?

    <p>Lamarck</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process by which humans modify species through selective breeding?

    <p>Artificial selection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary evidence that all living organisms came from a common ancestor?

    <p>DNA sequences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the similarity in structure between different species?

    <p>Homologous structure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process by which individuals with certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates?

    <p>Natural selection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is not an observation of natural selection?

    <p>The unequal ability of individuals to survive and reproduce will lead to the accumulation of unfavorable traits</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the phenomenon where humans and chimpanzees share similar DNA sequences?

    <p>Molecular homology</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason why humans and chimpanzees share similar DNA sequences?

    <p>Because they share a recent common ancestor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the limitation of the ecological species concept?

    <p>It relies on subjective criteria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of isolation prevents hybrid zygotes from developing into fertile offspring?

    <p>Postzygotic isolation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the process by which a new species can form in a single generation without geographic separation?

    <p>Polyploidy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process of formation of new species driven by mate choice for certain traits?

    <p>Sexual selection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the age of the oldest prokaryote fossils?

    <p>3.5 billion years ago</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the phenomenon of many animal phyla appearing suddenly in the fossils of the Cambrian period?

    <p>Cambrian explosion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the process by which mitochondria and plastids evolved from bacteria?

    <p>Serial endosymbiosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the representation of the evolutionary history of a group of organisms in a branching diagram?

    <p>Phylogenetic tree</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the system of naming species using a two-part name consisting of a genus and species?

    <p>Binomial nomenclature</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the evolutionary history of a species or group of related species?

    <p>Phylogeny</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between homology and analogy?

    <p>Homology is due to shared ancestry, while analogy is due to convergent evolution</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of monophyletic groups?

    <p>They consist of the ancestor and all of its descendants</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of fimbriae in prokaryotes?

    <p>They are involved in genetic recombination by conjugation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the difference between bacteria and archaea?

    <p>Bacteria have a cell wall containing peptidoglycan, while archaea do not</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of Cyanobacteria?

    <p>They are photosynthetic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the process by which prokaryotes obtain energy?

    <p>By different mechanisms, including phototrophy, chemotrophy, and heterotrophy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of antibiotic resistance in bacteria?

    <p>The selection for antibiotic-resistant bacteria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of ribosomes in prokaryotes?

    <p>They are involved in protein synthesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the nucleoid in prokaryotes?

    <p>It contains the complete chromosomes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of archaea?

    <p>They are always found in extreme environments</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Descent with Modification

    • Scientists who influenced Darwin: Hutton, Cuvier, Lyell, Wallace, etc.
    • Darwin's 5-year voyage on the HMS Beagle as a naturalist, published "The Origin of Species" in 1859
    • Definition of evolution: the process by which species accumulate differences from their ancestors as they adapt to different environments over time
    • Populations change over time genetically, not individuals

    Natural Selection

    • The process in which individuals with certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates because of those traits
    • 4 observations (or inferences) of natural selection:
      • Individuals in populations vary in their inherited traits
      • All species can produce more offspring than the environment can support, and many of these offspring fail to survive and reproduce
      • Individuals with inherited traits that increase survival and reproduction in an environment tend to produce more offspring than other individuals
      • The unequal ability of individuals to survive and reproduce will lead to the accumulation of favorable traits in the population over generations

    Evidence of Evolution

    • Direct observation: antibiotic resistance, birds' beak size and fruit size
    • Homology: similarity from common ancestry, including:
      • Anatomical homology (homologous structures)
      • Comparative embryology
      • Vestigial structures (e.g. goosebumps, wisdom teeth, ear muscle, tailbone of human)
      • Molecular homology (DNA)
    • Fossil records: 3.5 billion years old
    • Biogeography: the scientific study of the geographic distribution of species

    Evolution of Populations

    • Microevolution vs. Macroevolution
    • Three mechanisms that directly cause allele frequency change:
      • Natural selection
      • Genetic drift
      • Gene flow
    • Genetic variation: the differences in genes or other DNA sequences among individuals
    • Sources of genetic variation: mutation, gene duplication, sexual reproduction
    • Gene pool: consists of all copies of every allele in all members of the population

    Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

    • If a population is not evolving, genotype and allele frequencies will be constant from generation to generation
    • Equilibrium conditions: no mutation, random mating, no natural selection, extremely large population size, no gene flow
    • Hardy-Weinberg equation: p + q = 1, p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1

    Natural Selection (continued)

    • Natural selection is the only mechanism that consistently causes adaptive evolution
    • Relative fitness: the contribution an individual makes to the gene pool of the next generation relative to the contributions of other individuals
    • Patterns of natural selection: directional, disruptive, and stabilizing
    • Sexual selection: a process in which individuals with certain heritable traits are more likely to obtain mates than other individuals of the same sex

    Genetic Drift

    • A process in which chance events cause allele frequencies to fluctuate unpredictably from one generation to the next
    • Tends to reduce genetic variation through the random loss of alleles
    • The smaller the sample, the greater the chance of random deviation from a predicted result
    • Founder effect: occurs when a few individuals become isolated from a larger population
    • Bottleneck effect: occurs when there is a drastic reduction in population size due to a sudden change in the environment

    Gene Flow

    • Consists of the movement of alleles among populations

    The Origin of Species

    • Speciation: the process by which one species splits into two species
    • Microevolution vs. Macroevolution
    • Biological species concept: defined by the populations' ability to interbreed and produce fertile offspring
    • Morphological species concept: mainly depends on anatomical physical features
    • Ecological species concept: defines species by its ecological niche

    Reproductive Isolation

    • Results when biological barriers impede members of two species from interbreeding and producing fertile offspring
    • Prezygotic and postzygotic isolations
    • Prezygotic isolation: blocks fertilization, including:
      • Habitat isolation
      • Temporal isolation
      • Behavioral isolation
      • Mechanical isolation
      • Gametic isolation
    • Postzygotic isolation: prevents hybrid zygotes from developing into fertile offspring, including:
      • Reduced hybrid viability
      • Reduced hybrid fertility
      • Hybrid breakdown

    Speciation

    • Two ways of speciation: Allopatric vs. Sympatric speciation
    • Allopatric speciation: populations are geographically isolated
    • Sympatric speciation: speciation occurs in populations that live in the same geographic area
    • Polyploidy: instant speciation, common in plants
    • Sexual selection: speciation is driven by mate choice for certain traits
    • Habitat differentiation: the exploitation of new habitats or resources

    The History of Life on Earth

    • The formation of Earth: about 4.6 billion years ago
    • The oldest prokaryote fossils: 3.5 billion years ago
    • The oldest eukaryote fossils: 1.8 billion years ago
    • The first genetic material on Earth: likely RNA
    • Radiometric dating: how fossils are dated, using radioactive isotopes
    • Geologic record: Cambrian explosion, many animal phyla appear suddenly in the fossils of the Cambrian period

    Endosymbiosis

    • Origin of eukaryotic organisms
    • Both mitochondria and plastids are thought to have descended from bacteria
    • Serial endosymbiosis: the hypothesis stating that mitochondria evolved before plastids through a sequence of endosymbiotic events

    Mass Extinctions

    • Occur when large numbers of species rapidly become extinct worldwide
    • Five mass extinctions have been documented
    • Paved the way for adaptive radiation

    Phylogeny and the Tree of Life

    • Phylogeny: the evolutionary history of a species or group of related species
    • Phylogenetic tree: represents the evolutionary history of a group of organisms
    • Biological classification system:
      • Domain-Kingdom-Phylum-Class-Order-Family-Genus-Species
      • Binomial nomenclature
    • Homology vs. Analogy:
      • Homology: similarity due to shared ancestry
      • Analogy: similarity due to convergent evolution

    Bacteria and Archaea

    • Prokaryotes: single-celled organisms that make up domains Bacteria and Archaea
    • First organisms to inhabit Earth
    • Most are unicellular, but some species form colonies
    • Smaller and simpler than eukaryotic cells
    • Shapes: cocci, bacilli, spirals
    • Structures: nucleoid, plasmid, pili, fimbriae, capsule, ribosome
    • Reproduce quickly by binary fission
    • Genetic recombination by transformation, transduction, conjugation
    • Different ways to obtain energy: phototrophs, chemotrophs, autotrophs, heterotrophs
    • Two domains with prokaryotes: Bacteria and Archaea

    The Commonalities and Differences between Bacteria and Archaea

    • Both have a plasma membrane, no nuclear envelope
    • Different composition of cell wall (peptidoglycan in bacteria, not in archaea)
    • The roles of prokaryotes: pathogens, mutualistic organisms, decomposers

    Antibiotic Resistance

    • The cause of antibiotic resistance: natural selection, evolution of bacteria

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    Explore the concept of evolution, its definition, and the scientists who influenced Charles Darwin's work, including his 5-year voyage on the HMS Beagle.

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