Biology Chapter 1 - Classification of Life

Chapter 1 - Classification of Life

• Domains of Life:
  • Bacteria and Archaea (Prokaryotes):
    • Lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
    • Have a cell wall.
    • Possess pili and flagella.
    • Contain plasmids and capsules.
    • Prokaryotic cells.
  • Eukarya (Eukaryotes):
    • Contain a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles (e.g., mitochondria, lysosomes, rough/smooth ER).
    • Divided into four kingdoms: Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia.
    • Eukaryotic cells.
• Kingdom Protista:
  • Unicellular or multicellular.
  • Lack specialized tissues.
  • Examples include algae.
• Kingdom Fungi:
  • Obtain nutrition by absorption.
  • Can be unicellular (e.g., yeast) or multicellular (e.g., mushrooms).
  • Have cell walls.
• Kingdom Plantae:
  • Obtain energy through photosynthesis.
  • Multicellular.
  • Have cell walls made of cellulose.
• Kingdom Animalia:
  • Multicellular.
  • Lack cell walls.
  • Mostly obtain nourishment through consumption.

Chapter 1 - Properties of Life and Biological Organization

• Properties of Life:
  • Order (organization)
  • Energy processing
  • Response to the environment
  • Regulation
  • Growth and development
  • Reproduction
  • Adaptation
• Levels of Biological Organization:
  • Molecules (e.g., H₂O, O₂, NaCl)
  • Organelles (e.g., mitochondria, nucleus, lysosomes)
  • Cells (e.g., nerve, muscle, bacteria, plant cells)
  • Tissues (e.g., connective, epithelial, muscle)
  • Organs (e.g., heart, lungs, liver)
  • Organism
  • Population
  • Communities
  • Ecosystems (e.g., Amazonian jungle)
  • Biosphere
• Themes of Biology:
  • Organization: Structure and function are correlated at all levels of biological organization. Organisms' basic unit of structure and function are cells. Cells exhibit emergent properties, which are not present in individual components.
  • Information: DNA carries the heritable information for life's processes. DNA dictates protein synthesis (DNA → mRNA → chain of amino acids → proteins).
  • Energy and matter: Energy flows from the producers (plants) to consumers (animals); organisms interact with their environments by exchanging matter and energy.
  • Interactions: Organisms interact with their environments; feedback mechanisms regulate biological systems. Negative feedback decreases a response, positive feedback increases it.
  • Evolution: Species change over time; traits better adapted to their environment increase survival and reproductive success, leading to more individuals with those traits within the species.

Chapter 2 - Chemical Bonds

• Subatomic Particles:
  • Proton: Determines the element.
  • Neutron: 1 Dalton.
  • Electron: Very light (1/2,000 Dalton).
• Types of Chemical Bonds:
  • Covalent Bonds: Atoms share one or more pairs of valence electrons.
    • Polar Covalent Bonds: Unequal sharing of electrons due to differences in electronegativity (one atom "hogs" the electron, creating partial charges).
    • Nonpolar Covalent Bonds: Equal sharing of electrons.
  • Ionic Bonds: One atom strips electrons from another; results in ions with opposite charges attracting each other. Ions are charged.
  • Noncovalent Bonds:
    • Hydrogen Bonds: Formed when hydrogen bonds to an electronegative atom (e.g., oxygen or nitrogen); no electron sharing.
    • Van der Waals Interactions: Weak, transient attractions in nonpolar molecules; many weak interactions can have significant effects.

Chapter 3 - Water

• Structure of Water: Polar molecule resulting in hydrogen bonding.
• Emergent Properties of Water:
  • Cohesion/Adhesion: Hydrogen bonding results in cohesive (H₂O → H₂O) and adhesive (H₂O → other) behavior.
  • Surface Tension: Strong hydrogen bonding at the water's surface.
  • Moderating Temperature: High specific heat (resists temperature change); High heat of vaporization (absorbs much heat during evaporation); evaporative cooling.
  • Expansion upon Freezing: Ice is less dense than liquid water due to hydrogen bonding, insulating bodies of water.
  • Versatility as a Solvent: Water's polarity makes it a good solvent for many substances; forming hydration shells around dissolved solutes; water is the solvent in aqueous solutions. Two ways to dissolve a substance: formation of a hydration shell; making hydrogen bonds. Hydration shell keeps ions apart.

Chapter 3 - Acids, Bases, and pH

• pH: Measure of hydrogen ion (H⁺) concentration in a solution.
• Acids: Donate H⁺ ions.
• Bases: Accept H⁺ ions.
• Buffers: Minimize changes in pH.

Chapter 4 - Carbon and Organic Molecules

• Carbon's Bonding Properties: Carbon atoms form the backbone of most organic molecules, bonding to four other atoms. Carbon chains form the skeleton of many organic molecules varying in lengths and shapes.
• Hydrocarbons: Organic molecules containing only carbon and hydrogen; hydrophobic (nonpolar).
• Functional Groups: Specific groups of atoms attached to carbon skeletons, affecting molecule properties. Seven main functional groups (examples described).

Chapter 5 - Macromolecules

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Chapter 6 - Cell Structure and Function

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Chapter 7 - Cell Membranes

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Chapter 8 - Enzymes and Cellular Energetics

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Chapter 9 - Cellular Respiration

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Chapter 12 - Cell Cycle and Mitosis

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Chapter 13 - Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction

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Chapter 14 & 15 - Mendelian Genetics

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