Biochemistry Review Unit 1
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Questions and Answers

Which enzyme is responsible for joining Okazaki fragments on the lagging strand during DNA replication?

  • DNA Polymerase I
  • DNA Ligase (correct)
  • DNA Polymerase III
  • Primase

What is the role of mRNA in protein synthesis?

  • It carries the genetic code from DNA to the ribosome. (correct)
  • It serves as a template for DNA replication.
  • It acts as a catalyst for translation.
  • It carries amino acids to the ribosome.

Which type of mutation involves a change in a single nucleotide that results in a different amino acid being incorporated into the protein sequence?

  • Nonsense Mutation
  • Missense Mutation (correct)
  • Frameshift Mutation
  • Silent Mutation

What is the difference between the leading and lagging strands during DNA replication?

<p>The leading strand is synthesized continuously, while the lagging strand is synthesized in fragments. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the process called where DNA is copied into mRNA?

<p>Transcription (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a modification that occurs to mRNA after transcription?

<p>Addition of a phosphate group (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of tRNA in translation?

<p>It transfers specific amino acids to the ribosome. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the name of the region where DNA is unwound and replication occurs?

<p>Replication Bubble (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the difference between covalent and ionic bonds?

<p>Covalent bonds involve the sharing of electrons, while ionic bonds involve the transfer of electrons. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of hydrogen bonds?

<p>They are formed between two atoms with opposite charges. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the key difference between isotopes of the same element?

<p>They have different numbers of neutrons. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of these examples best illustrates the concept of polarity?

<p>The attraction of water molecules to each other through hydrogen bonds. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an accurate example of an ionic bond?

<p>The bond between sodium and chlorine in sodium chloride (NaCl). (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason why water is an excellent solvent?

<p>Its ability to form hydrogen bonds. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best explains why isotopes have different atomic masses?

<p>They have different numbers of neutrons. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of bond is responsible for the unique properties of water, such as its high boiling point and surface tension?

<p>Hydrogen bonds (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A population of rabbits on an island experiences a dramatic increase in its size due to ample resources and the absence of predators. Which type of growth model best describes this scenario?

<p>Exponential Growth (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between K-selected species and R-selected species in terms of their reproductive strategies?

<p>K-selected species are more adapted to competition, while R-selected species are more adapted to unpredictable environments. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A population of deer in a forest is limited by the availability of food, water, and shelter. This limitation represents:

<p>Carrying capacity (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following scenarios best exemplifies a density-independent factor influencing population size?

<p>A severe drought reduces the availability of water for a population of rabbits. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In a mark-recapture experiment, 50 fish are caught and marked. Later, 100 fish are caught, and 10 of them are found to be marked. Using this data, what is the estimated population size?

<p>500 (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following scenarios best exemplifies a closed population?

<p>A population of bacteria growing in a petri dish with no means of escape. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If λ, the finite growth rate, is equal to 1, what does this indicate about the population?

<p>The population is stable. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the formula Nt = N0ert, what does the variable 'r' represent?

<p>Intrinsic growth rate (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of NADP+ in photosynthesis?

<p>To transport electrons (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes the process by which cells take up foreign DNA from their environment?

<p>Transformation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main role of the nucleus in eukaryotic cells?

<p>Regulating gene expression (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the structure of DNA described as?

<p>Double helix (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During DNA replication, which enzyme is responsible for unwinding the DNA double helix?

<p>DNA Helicase (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In DNA, which base pairs with adenine (A)?

<p>Thymine (T) (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of a protein coat in a virus?

<p>To protect the virus and aid in host cell attachment (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'antiparallel' refer to in the context of DNA structure?

<p>The strands run in opposite directions (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of negative feedback mechanisms in the body?

<p>Return the system to its original state (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following actions does NOT contribute to temperature regulation in humans?

<p>Increased metabolic processes at all temperatures (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a critical consequence of extreme high temperatures on the human body?

<p>Potential for heat exhaustion or stroke (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do the kidneys contribute to homeostasis in the body?

<p>By filtering blood and excreting waste products (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In which part of the nephron does the initial filtration of blood occur?

<p>Glomerulus (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What triggers the positive feedback mechanism during childbirth?

<p>Release of oxytocin (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes the function of the Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)?

<p>Reabsorbs nutrients, ions, and water into the bloodstream (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of improper waste excretion in the body?

<p>Accumulation of toxins and metabolic waste (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the inner membrane of the mitochondria?

<p>To facilitate the electron transport chain (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is produced during lactic acid fermentation?

<p>Lactic acid and NAD+ (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which component plays a crucial role as an electron carrier in cellular respiration?

<p>FADH₂ (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During which phase of photosynthesis does the Calvin cycle occur?

<p>Dark reactions (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does substrate-level phosphorylation refer to?

<p>Direct production of ATP from ADP during glycolysis (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of these is considered an input for the light reactions of photosynthesis?

<p>NADP+ (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What occurs in the intermembrane space of mitochondria?

<p>Electron transport (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the overall equation for photosynthesis?

<p>6CO2 + 6H2O + light energy → C6H12O6 + 6O2 (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Replication Bubble

A region where DNA is unwound and replication occurs.

Replication Fork

The point where the two DNA strands are separated during replication.

DNA Polymerase

Enzymes that synthesize new DNA strands by adding nucleotides to the growing chain.

Okazaki Fragments

Short segments of DNA synthesized on the lagging strand during replication.

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Leading Strand

The continuously synthesized strand of DNA in the direction of the replication fork.

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Lagging Strand

The strand synthesized in short fragments (Okazaki fragments) away from the replication fork.

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Transcription

The process of copying a segment of DNA into messenger RNA (mRNA).

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Translation

The process of synthesizing proteins from mRNA at the ribosome.

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Transformation

The process by which a cell takes up foreign DNA from its environment. For example, bacteria can incorporate plasmids (small DNA molecules) from their surroundings, allowing them to acquire new traits, such as antibiotic resistance.

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Nucleus

A membrane-bound organelle found in eukaryotic cells that houses the cell's DNA. It controls cellular activities by regulating gene expression.

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DNA

The molecule that stores genetic information in the form of a sequence of nucleotides.

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RNA

A nucleic acid involved in protein synthesis and gene regulation. It serves as a messenger carrying instructions from DNA.

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Protein Coat

The protective outer layer of a virus, typically made of protein subunits. It helps the virus attach to and enter host cells.

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Bacteriophage

A type of virus that specifically infects bacteria. It consists of genetic material (either DNA or RNA) encased in a protein coat. Bacteriophages can inject their genetic material into bacterial cells, leading to the production of new virus particles, often resulting in the lysis (destruction) of the host cell.

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Double Helix

DNA has a double-helix structure, resembling a twisted ladder, with two strands running in opposite directions.

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Antiparallel

The two strands of DNA are oriented in opposite directions, one running from 5’ to 3’ and the other from 3’ to 5’. This orientation is crucial for DNA replication and function.

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Photosynthesis

The process of converting light energy into chemical energy (glucose) by plants, algae, and some bacteria.

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Chlorophyll

The green pigment found in chloroplasts, essential for capturing light energy during photosynthesis.

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Chloroplasts

Organelles in plant cells where photosynthesis occurs, containing thylakoids (light reactions) and stroma (Calvin cycle).

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Light Reactions

The process in photosynthesis where light energy is captured to generate ATP and NADPH. Occurs in the thylakoids of chloroplasts.

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ATP and NADPH

Energy-carrying molecules produced during the light reactions, used in the Calvin cycle to convert CO₂ into glucose.

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Calvin Cycle

The process in photosynthesis where CO₂ is converted into glucose, using ATP and NADPH. Occurs in the stroma of chloroplasts.

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Light Compensation Point

The minimum level of light intensity at which photosynthesis equals respiration. Below this point, the plant loses more energy than it gains.

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Cellular Respiration

The process of breaking down glucose to release energy (ATP), occurring in all living organisms.

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Mark-Recapture

A method that estimates the total size of a population by capturing, marking, releasing, and then recapturing individuals to see how many marked individuals are in the second sample.

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K-Selected Species

Species that produce a small number of offspring but invest a lot of time and resources in raising them, leading to a stable population near the carrying capacity.

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R-Selected Species

Species that produce many offspring with little to no parental investment, leading to fluctuating population sizes.

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Geometric Growth

Describes population growth that takes place in discrete time intervals. It follows the formula Nt = N0λt, where Nt is the population size at time t, N0 is the initial population size, and λ is the finite growth rate.

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Exponential Growth

Describes continuous growth that occurs under ideal conditions with unlimited resources. It follows the formula Nt = N0ert, where r is the intrinsic growth rate.

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Carrying Capacity

The maximum number of individuals that an environment can sustainably support. It is influenced by resources such as food, water, and shelter.

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Open Population

Populations where individuals can enter and exit, affecting the population size. Immigration and emigration can influence the growth rate.

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Closed Population

Populations where there is no immigration or emigration. Their size changes only through births and deaths.

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Covalent Bonds: What are they?

Covalent bonds occur when two atoms share one or more pairs of electrons. This kind of bond usually happens between non-metal atoms. They allow atoms to achieve a full outer electron shell by sharing rather than gaining or losing.

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Covalent Bonds: Example

In a water molecule, each hydrogen atom shares an electron with the oxygen atom. This creates a strong bond and a stable molecule.

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Ionic Bonds: What are they?

Ionic bonds are formed when one atom gives an electron to another atom, resulting in charged particles called ions. This leaves one atom positively charged (cation) and one negatively charged (anion).

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Negative Feedback

A process that counters changes in the body, returning it to its normal state. It acts like a thermostat, responding to changes by counteracting them.

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Positive Feedback

A process that amplifies changes in the body, pushing it further away from its normal state. Less common, but important for specific processes.

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Ionic Bonds: Example

In table salt (NaCl), sodium (Na) gives its electron to chlorine (Cl). This makes Na+ and Cl- ions, which are attracted to each other through electrostatic forces.

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Hydrogen Bonds: What are they?

Hydrogen bonds are weak attractions between molecules with polar covalent bonds. They happen when a hydrogen atom bonded to an electronegative atom (like oxygen or nitrogen) is attracted to another such electronegative atom.

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Homeostasis

Maintaining a stable internal environment, despite changes in the external environment. Key for optimal body function.

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Waste Excretion

The process of removing waste products and toxins from the body. Essential for preventing cell damage and maintaining health.

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Hydrogen Bonds: Example

In a water molecule, hydrogen atoms are positive, and oxygen is negative. This allows water molecules to form hydrogen bonds, contributing to water's important properties like its high boiling point.

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Isotopes: What are they?

Isotopes are versions of the same element that have the same number of protons (atomic number) but different numbers of neutrons. This difference in neutrons leads to different atomic masses.

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Glomerulus

The network of capillaries within the nephron where blood filtration begins. It allows water, ions, and small molecules to pass into Bowman's Capsule.

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Isotopes: Example

Carbon-12 and Carbon-14 are isotopes of carbon. Carbon-12 has 6 neutrons, while Carbon-14 has 8. Carbon-14 is radioactive, used for dating.

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Bowman's Capsule

The capsule surrounding the glomerulus, collecting the filtrate (filtered fluid) from the blood.

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Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)

Part of the nephron that reabsorbs essential nutrients, water, and ions back into the bloodstream, contributing to fluid and electrolyte balance.

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Nephron

The functional unit of the kidney, responsible for filtering blood, reabsorbing essential substances, and producing urine.

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Study Notes

Unit 1: Biochemistry Review

  • Covalent Bonds are formed when atoms share one or more electron pairs, typically between non-metal atoms.
  • Example: In a water molecule (H₂O), hydrogen atoms share electrons with the oxygen atom. This sharing allows each atom to achieve a full outer electron shell.
  • Ionic Bonds form when one atom donates an electron to another, creating charged ions (cations and anions).
  • Example: In sodium chloride (NaCl), sodium donates an electron to chlorine, creating Na⁺ and Cl⁻ ions held together by electrostatic forces.
  • Hydrogen Bonds are weak attractions between molecules with polar covalent bonds.
  • Example: In water (H₂O), hydrogen atoms are slightly positive and oxygen is slightly negative, allowing water molecules to form hydrogen bonds. This polarity contributes to water's unique properties such as high boiling point and surface tension.
  • Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but differing numbers of neutrons and thus different atomic masses.
  • Example: Carbon-12 and Carbon-14 are both isotopes of carbon. Carbon-12 has 6 neutrons, while Carbon-14 has 8 neutrons.

Unit 2: Metabolic Processes Review

  • Metabolism encompasses all chemical reactions in an organism, divided into anabolism (building complex molecules) and catabolism (breaking down complex molecules).
  • Anabolism: Builds larger molecules from smaller ones, requiring energy input.
  • Example: Protein synthesis from amino acids.
  • Catabolism: Breaks down larger molecules into smaller ones, releasing energy.
  • Example: Glucose breakdown during cellular respiration.
  • **Cellular Respiration: ** Converts glucose and oxygen into carbon dioxide, water, and energy (ATP).
  • Aerobic Cellular Respiration requires oxygen and occurs in stages including glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain.
  • Anaerobic Respiration (Fermentation), occurs without oxygen and produces less ATP than aerobic respiration, examples including lactic acid fermentation (in muscles) and ethanol fermentation (in yeast).
  • Photosynthesis: Converts light energy into chemical energy (glucose) using chlorophyll in chloroplasts. Two stages are (1) light-dependent reactions and (2) light-independent reactions (Calvin Cycle).

Unit 3: Molecular Genetics Review

  • Transformation is the process of a cell taking up foreign DNA from its environment. This allows bacteria to acquire new traits.
  • Nucleus: The nucleus houses a cell's DNA and controls cellular activities by regulating gene expression.
  • DNA & RNA: DNA stores genetic information as a sequence of nucleotides, while RNA is involved in protein synthesis and gene regulation.
  • Protein Coat: A protective outer layer of a virus, typically composed of protein subunits, helping the virus attach to and enter host cells.
  • Bacteriophage: A type of virus specifically infecting bacteria. It injects its genetic material into bacterial cells to produce new virus particles, often causing host cell lysis.
  • DNA Replication: The process of copying DNA to ensure genetic stability during cell division.
  • Key enzymes in DNA replication include DNA helicase, DNA polymerase, DNA ligase and others.
  • Okazaki Fragments: Short DNA segments synthesized on the lagging strand during replication.
  • RNA Primer: A short RNA sequence needed to initiate DNA synthesis.
  • Protein Synthesis: The central dogma describes a continuous flow of information from the DNA genotype to the RNA transcript to the protein phenotype.
  • Transcription: Converts a portion of DNA to a messenger RNA (mRNA) copy.
  • Translation: Converts the mRNA sequence into an amino acid sequence of the polypeptide/protein.
  • Mutations: Alterations in the DNA sequence that can lead to changes in protein synthesis. Key mutation types include point mutations (silent, missense, nonsense) and frameshift mutations.
  • Gene Regulation: Mechanisms controlling when and how much of a gene product is produced. Examples include operons (such as lac and trp operons).

Unit 4: Population Dynamics Review

  • Population Ecology: Studies population sizes, densities, distributions, and dynamics, and helps to predict interactions with the environment.
  • Population: Individuals of the same species in a given area at a particular time.
  • Population Density: Number of individuals per unit area.
  • Population Growth: Can be geometric (discontinuous growth) or exponential (continuous growth); these changes are influenced by factors impacting reproduction (birth/death) rates.
  • K vs R selection describes species that exhibit either high or low parental investment into the survival of offspring.
  • Density dependent factors are limiting because they are increased in higher population density areas.
  • Density independent factors are not dependent on population density. Examples include predation and disease.
  • Predator-Prey Relationships: Interactions between predator and prey populations influence each other's sizes.
  • Symbiosis: Types include parasitism, mutualism, and commensalism. These relationships exist between different species.
  • Dispersion Patterns/Distribution: The way individuals are spaced in an environment (clumped, uniform, random).
  • Research Methods: In ecology, tools are used for population studies, such as mark-recapture and quadrat.
  • Defensive Mechanisms: Adaptations that organisms use to avoid predation, such as camouflage, warning coloration, and mimicry.

Unit 5: Homeostasis Review

  • Homeostasis: The process of maintaining stable internal conditions regardless of external conditions .
  • Feedback Mechanisms: Enable a system to keep itself at a set point.
  • Negative Feedback: A process to bring conditions back to the set-point (thermoregulation).
  • Positive Feedback: A process that amplifies changes further from the set-point (childbirth).
  • Temperature Regulation: Maintaining internal body temperature using feedback mechanisms.
  • Waste Excretion: Regulates metabolic waste to maintain homeostasis and fluid balance.
  • Urinary System: Filters blood to produce urine, remove waste, and regulate fluid balance; components include kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra.
  • Nephron (Kidney Structures): Glomerulus, Bowman's capsule, proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule, and collecting duct are responsible for filtering and reabsorbing materials to form urine.
  • Kidney Disease: Issues affecting the kidneys' ability to filter blood, leading to problems such as diabetes mellitus, kidney stones, and inflammation (Bright's Disease).

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