Biochemistry of Neurotransmitters
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Questions and Answers

What role do SNAREs play in the process of synaptic transmission?

  • They bind neurotransmitters to neuroreceptors.
  • They directly transmit electrical signals between neurons.
  • They facilitate the fusion of lipid bilayers during neurotransmitter release. (correct)
  • They serve as receptors for ions in gap junctions.

What is a characteristic feature of chemical synapses?

  • They allow for faster signal transmission.
  • They are bi-directional in communication.
  • They allow direct ion flow through gap junctions.
  • They involve the release of neurotransmitters. (correct)

How do electrical synapses differ from chemical synapses?

  • Electrical synapses are uni-directional.
  • Electrical synapses require complex protein interactions.
  • Electrical synapses use a slower mode of signal transmission.
  • Electrical synapses do not involve neurotransmitter release. (correct)

What is the role of neurotransmitters in synaptic transmission?

<p>They bind to receptors on the post-synaptic neuron and trigger a response. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about electrical synapses is true?

<p>They allow ions to flow directly between cells. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What feature allows a neuron to receive inputs from multiple pre-synaptic neurons?

<p>Multiple branches on a single axon. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes V-SNAREs in the context of synaptic transmission?

<p>They help with the fusion of vesicles in neurotransmitter release. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of synapse is characterized by slower communication and modulation of the signal?

<p>Chemical synapse (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of neurotransmitters at a synapse?

<p>To transmit signals between neurons or from neurons to target cells (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common characteristic of both chemical and electrical synapses?

<p>Both facilitate communication between neurons. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which neurotransmitter is commonly associated with mood regulation and often targeted in antidepressant medications?

<p>Serotonin (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential role of glutamate in the central nervous system (CNS)?

<p>It is the principal excitatory neurotransmitter. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect do neurotransmitters have on receptors in the post-synaptic neuron?

<p>They bind and trigger an excitatory or inhibitory response. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following neurotransmitters is known for being inhibitory in nature?

<p>GABA (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes an agonist from an antagonist in neurotransmitter activity?

<p>Agonists enhance neurotransmitter actions, while antagonists diminish them. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of pharmacological treatment, how can neurotransmitter actions be influenced?

<p>Through the use of agonists or antagonists. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which neurotransmitters are known to be involved in the pathophysiology of anxiety disorders?

<p>Serotonin and norepinephrine (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which condition is associated with a deficit in dopamine activity?

<p>Parkinson's disease (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which neurotransmitter is NOT classified as a biogenic amine?

<p>Acetylcholine (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of metabotropic receptors?

<p>Trigger a signaling pathway (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary function of neurotoxins such as α-Latrotoxin?

<p>Promote neurotransmitter release (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What occurs upon neurotransmitter binding to ionotropic receptors?

<p>Conformational change causing channel opening (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following effects is caused by botulinum toxin?

<p>Inhibition of neurotransmitter release (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about excitatory effects is correct?

<p>They depend on the type and concentration of ions passing through (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of neurotransmitter are neuropeptides generally characterized as?

<p>Made up of three or more amino acids (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the term used to describe neurotransmitters that do not fit into traditional classifications?

<p>Unconventional neurotransmitters (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is typically true regarding the removal of neurotransmitters from the synapse?

<p>It is completed via enzymatic degradation or uptake by glial cells (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How many transmembrane domains are typically found in metabotropic receptors?

<p>7 (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which substance derived from botulinum toxin is used to treat muscle spasticity and migraines?

<p>Botox (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In metabotropic receptors, what happens after neurotransmitter binding?

<p>G-proteins are activated (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Batrachotoxin do to neurons?

<p>Irreversibly binds to Na+ channels (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic does not define metabotropic receptors?

<p>They cause immediate ion flow (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a common application of Botox?

<p>Reduce excessive sweating (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which neurotransmitter is categorized as an amino acid but is not incorporated into proteins?

<p>GABA (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an effect of ionotropic receptors that is different from metabotropic receptors?

<p>They typically produce quick physiological responses (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the metabotropic receptor is located intracellularly?

<p>C-terminus (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does tetanus toxin have on neurotransmitter release?

<p>Inhibits release by damaging synaptobrevin (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which component is NOT involved in the signaling cascade triggered by metabotropic receptors?

<p>Receptor antagonists (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one characteristic that differentiates metabotropic receptors from ionotropic receptors?

<p>They activate G-proteins after neurotransmitter binding. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the typical speed of response for ionotropic receptors?

<p>Rapid, within milliseconds. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following effects is associated with metabotropic receptors?

<p>Longer-lasting effects due to complex signaling pathways. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do metabotropic receptors play in learning and memory?

<p>They are crucial for synaptic plasticity. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is synaptic plasticity?

<p>The capacity of synapses to strengthen or weaken over time. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How can metabotropic receptors influence ionotropic receptors?

<p>By influencing their trafficking and expression. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is considered a primary function of metabotropic receptors in the brain?

<p>To filter out unimportant information. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What physiological processes are influenced by metabotropic receptors?

<p>Gene transcription and protein synthesis. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Where is a high density of metabotropic receptors found?

<p>Hippocampus. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one outcome of the activation of metabotropic receptors?

<p>Changes in gene expression and enzyme activity. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does a signal to noise ratio in the context of metabotropic receptors refer to?

<p>The balance between important and unimportant signals. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why are metabotropic receptors targeted for drug development?

<p>They are involved in gene transcription and protein synthesis. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What kind of effect does metabotropic receptor activation produce in terms of duration?

<p>Short to long-lasting depending on the pathway. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do syntaxin and SNAP-25 play in neuronal communication?

<p>They mediate docking and exocytosis of synaptic vesicles. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which protein unwinds SNARE proteins to disassemble the SNARE complex?

<p>NSF (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of excitatory post-synaptic potential (EPSP) on the membrane potential?

<p>It makes the inside of the cell more positive. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which ions are primarily involved in inhibitory post-synaptic responses?

<p>Cl- entering and K+ exiting (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during hyperpolarization of the post-synaptic membrane?

<p>The inside becomes more negative. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens when small EPSPs or IPSPs summate?

<p>They create a localized change in membrane potential. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the flexibility of synaptic signaling?

<p>It allows for adjustments in neurotransmitter release and receptor numbers. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of synaptic plasticity?

<p>To strengthen or weaken synaptic transmission. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of neurotransmitters are classified as small molecules?

<p>Simple amino acids and other small compounds (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which effect would a decrease in neurotransmitter release typically have?

<p>Decrease in postsynaptic receptor activation. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The all-or-nothing response in action potentials refers to what phenomenon?

<p>A threshold being reached or not, leading to action potential or none. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which role do SNAPs (Soluble NSF Attachment Proteins) play?

<p>They bind to the SNARE complex and aid in recruiting NSF. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does an excitatory synapse affect an action potential?

<p>It increases the chance of firing an action potential. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

What is a synapse?

A synapse is the specialized junction where communication occurs between two neurons or between a neuron and a target cell.

What role does the synapse play in communication?

The synapse allows for the transmission of signals between nerve cells, enabling communication within the nervous system. This involves the release and reception of chemical messengers called neurotransmitters.

What are neurotransmitters?

Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that transmit signals across the synapse from one neuron to another or to a target cell. They bind to specific receptors on the receiving cell, triggering a response.

What is the role of the presynaptic neuron?

The presynaptic neuron is the neuron that releases neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft, the space between the two neurons or cells.

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What is the role of the postsynaptic neuron?

The postsynaptic neuron is the neuron that receives the neurotransmitter signals from the presynaptic neuron and responds accordingly to the neurotransmitter's action.

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What is synaptic transmission?

Synaptic transmission is the process of communication across the synapse where neurotransmitters, released by the presynaptic neuron, bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, causing a change in the receiving neuron's activity.

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How do neurotransmitters work?

Neurotransmitters are released from the presynaptic neuron into the synaptic cleft. They then bind to specific receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, triggering a response. These responses can either excite or inhibit the postsynaptic neuron's activity.

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Synaptic Cleft

The narrow gap between the presynaptic neuron (sending neuron) and the postsynaptic neuron (receiving neuron) where neurotransmitters are released.

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Synaptic Vesicles

Small sacs within the presynaptic neuron that contain neurotransmitters.

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Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that are released by the presynaptic neuron and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron.

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Neuroreceptors

Proteins on the postsynaptic neuron that bind to specific neurotransmitters, triggering a response.

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Chemical Synapse

A synapse where communication between neurons occurs through the release of neurotransmitters.

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Electrical Synapse

A synapse where communication is direct, through the flow of ions between neurons via gap junctions.

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Gap Junctions

Specialized channels that allow ions to flow directly between the cytoplasm of two adjacent cells.

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Synaptobrevin

A V-SNARE protein located on the vesicle membrane, involved in vesicle fusion.

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T-SNAREs

Proteins located on the target membrane, involved in vesicle fusion with the target membrane.

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SNAREs

A family of proteins that play a crucial role in vesicle fusion, enabling the release of neurotransmitters.

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Glutamate

An amino acid that acts as an excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain. Involved in learning and memory.

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GABA (γ-aminobutyric acid)

An amino acid that acts as an inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain. Responsible for calming and relaxing effects.

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Neurotoxins: α-Latrotoxin

A neurotoxin produced by black widow spiders that acts on presynaptic membranes. It creates pores that cause a massive release of neurotransmitters.

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Neurotoxins: Batrachotoxin

A neurotoxin produced by certain beetles, birds, and frogs that disrupts synaptic vesicles and prevents nerve signals from being transmitted.

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Neurotoxins: Tetanus Toxin

A neurotoxin that damages synaptobrevin, a protein involved in the fusion of synaptic vesicles with the presynaptic membrane. This disrupts neurotransmitter release leading to muscle spasms.

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Neurotoxins: Botulinum Toxin

A neurotoxin that disrupts T-SNARES and V-SNARES, proteins involved in the fusion of synaptic vesicles with the presynaptic membrane. This prevents neurotransmitter release, leading to muscle paralysis.

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Botox

A neurotoxin derived from Botulinum toxin, known for its ability to temporarily paralyze muscles.

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Dopamine

A biogenic amine neurotransmitter associated with pleasure, motivation, and reward.

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Norepinephrine

A biogenic amine neurotransmitter involved in attention, arousal, and alertness.

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Serotonin

A biogenic amine neurotransmitter involved in mood, sleep, and appetite.

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SNARE proteins

Proteins involved in the docking and fusion of synaptic vesicles with the presynaptic membrane, allowing neurotransmitter release.

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Syntaxin

A SNARE protein that is anchored to the presynaptic membrane and interacts with other SNARE proteins to facilitate vesicle fusion.

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SNAP-25

A SNARE protein that is also anchored to the presynaptic membrane and forms a complex with Syntaxin and the vesicle SNARE.

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NSF (N-ethylmaleimide Sensitive Fusion protein)

An ATPase that unwinds SNARE proteins after fusion, allowing them to be recycled.

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SNAPs (Soluble NSF Attachment Proteins)

Adaptor proteins that bind to the SNARE complex and help recruit NSF to disassemble it.

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Excitatory Post-synaptic Potential (EPSP)

A change in membrane potential of the post-synaptic neuron that makes it more likely to fire an action potential.

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Inhibitory Post-synaptic Potential (IPSP)

A change in membrane potential of the post-synaptic neuron that makes it less likely to fire an action potential.

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Depolarization

A change in membrane potential where the inside of the cell becomes more positive.

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Hyperpolarization

A change in membrane potential where the inside of the cell becomes more negative.

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Temporal Summation

The addition of EPSPs or IPSPs that occur close together in time.

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Spatial Summation

The addition of EPSPs or IPSPs that occur at different locations on the post-synaptic neuron.

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Synaptic Plasticity

The ability of synapses to change their strength over time in response to activity.

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Neurotransmitter Release

The process by which a presynaptic neuron releases neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft.

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Neurotransmitter Receptors

Proteins on the postsynaptic membrane that bind to neurotransmitters and trigger downstream signaling.

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Synaptic Signaling

The process of communication between neurons at a synapse, involving neurotransmitter release and binding to receptors.

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Metabotropic Receptors

These receptors are indirectly linked to ion channels and do not directly open or close them. Instead, they trigger a signaling pathway that indirectly influences ion channel activity.

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G-protein Coupled Receptors (GPCRs)

Another name for metabotropic receptors. These receptors use signaling molecules called G-proteins to relay information within the cell.

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Ionotropic Receptors

These receptors are ion channels themselves. Neurotransmitter binding directly opens or closes the channel, allowing ions to flow in or out of the cell.

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Ligand-Activated Ion Channels

Another name for ionotropic receptors, highlighting their activation by a specific ligand (neurotransmitter).

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Excitatory Neurotransmitter Effect

Neurotransmitters can trigger an excitatory effect, making the postsynaptic neuron more likely to fire an action potential. This is usually due to an influx of positive ions, like sodium, into the cell.

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Inhibitory Neurotransmitter Effect

Neurotransmitters can trigger an inhibitory effect, making the postsynaptic neuron less likely to fire an action potential. This is usually due to an influx of negative ions, like chloride, into the cell or an outflow of positive ions.

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Neurotransmitter Removal from Synapse

To prevent continuous signaling, neurotransmitters are quickly removed from the synaptic cleft, either through enzymatic degradation or reuptake by glial cells.

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Enzymatic Degradation

One way to remove neurotransmitters from the synapse. Enzymes break down the neurotransmitter molecules, often by using water to cleave their bonds.

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Reuptake by Glial Cells

Another way to remove neurotransmitters from the synapse. Glial cells, which support neurons, remove neurotransmitters from the synapse and may recycle them back to the presynaptic neuron.

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Transmembrane Domains

These are regions of a protein that traverse the cell membrane. Metabotropic receptors typically have 7 transmembrane domains.

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What is the difference in speed between the actions of ionotropic and metabotropic receptors?

Ionotropic receptors act much faster (milliseconds), as they directly open ion channels. Metabotropic receptors have slower responses (seconds to minutes) due to the multi-step signaling cascade they trigger.

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What is the main difference in structure between ionotropic and metabotropic receptors?

Ionotropic receptors form a channel in the membrane, while metabotropic receptors are linked to G-proteins and don't have their own channel.

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What is the main functional difference between ionotropic and metabotropic receptors?

Ionotropic receptors primarily cause immediate changes in membrane potential, leading to excitatory or inhibitory postsynaptic potentials. Metabotropic receptors can lead to diverse cellular responses like changes in gene expression, enzyme activity, and modulation of other ion channels.

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How do metabotropic receptors contribute to synaptic plasticity?

Metabotropic receptors can influence the strength of synapses by modulating neurotransmitter release, synaptic transmission, and even affecting the expression of ionotropic receptors.

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What is the role of metabotropic receptors in signal to noise ratio?

By filtering out unimportant information and amplifying important signals, metabotropic receptors help focus on relevant stimuli, ensuring a clear and strong transmission of information.

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Why are metabotropic receptors targets for many drugs?

Their extensive involvement in various physiological processes, including modulating neurotransmitter release, synaptic transmission, and even influencing gene expression and protein synthesis, makes them attractive targets for drugs aimed at specific brain functions.

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Where are metabotropic receptors highly concentrated?

Metabotropic receptors are densely located in the hippocampus, a brain area crucial for memory formation and learning.

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What is the significance of metabotropic receptors in memory and learning?

Metabotropic receptors play a vital role in synaptic plasticity, enabling synapses to strengthen or weaken over time. This process is essential for the formation and consolidation of memories.

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What are some examples of second messengers involved in metabotropic receptor signaling?

Second messengers triggered by metabotropic receptors include cAMP, IP3, and DAG. These molecules further amplify and diversify the intracellular signaling cascade.

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How do metabotropic receptors affect ionotropic receptors?

Metabotropic receptors can influence the trafficking and expression of ionotropic receptors, further modulating the flow of ions across the membrane.

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What is the significance of the duration of effect for metabotropic receptors?

Metabotropic receptors have longer-lasting effects compared to ionotropic receptors due to their involvement in complex signaling pathways and their influence on gene expression and protein synthesis.

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Study Notes

Biochemistry of Neurotransmitters

  • The lecture covers neurotransmitters, their functions, receptors, agonists, antagonists, and their roles in various diseases.

Course Objectives

  • Describe the structures and functions of neurotransmitters like acetylcholine, adrenaline, noradrenaline, serotonin, dopamine, histamine, glutamate, GABA, aspartate, and glycine.
  • List examples of agonists and antagonists for the mentioned neurotransmitters.
  • Give an account of neurotransmitter receptor structures and their mechanisms.
  • Discuss the roles of neurotransmitters and their receptors in conditions like anxiety, dementia, depression, schizophrenia, Parkinson's disease, and migraine.
  • Explain how neurotransmitter actions in the central nervous system (CNS) can be pharmacologically modified to treat disorders.

Neurotransmission

  • The synapse is the junction between two neurons or a neuron and a target cell (e.g., muscle or gland).
  • The pre-synaptic neuron sends the signal.
  • The post-synaptic neuron receives the signal.
  • Action potentials stimulate release of neurotransmitters.
  • Neurotransmitters bind with receptors on the post-synaptic neuron, causing various effects.

Chemical and Electrical Synapses

  • Chemical synapses are the most common type, utilizing neurotransmitters for communication.
  • They involve the release of neurotransmitters from a pre-synaptic neuron that bind to receptors on a post-synaptic neuron.
  • Communication is unidirectional.
  • Electrical synapses allow direct electrical communication through gap junctions.
  • Ions flow directly between cells, causing faster and bidirectional signal transmission.

Chemical Synaptic Transmission

  • Neurotransmitters are synthesized and stored in vesicles.
  • Action potential arrival at the terminal triggers calcium influx.
  • Calcium causes vesicle fusion with the membrane, releasing neurotransmitters.
  • Neurotransmitters bind to receptors, inducing various effects.
  • Neurotransmitters can be removed via reuptake, enzymatic degradation, or diffusion.

SNARES

  • Soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptors (SNAREs) are crucial for vesicle fusion and neurotransmitter release.
  • Vesicle membrane: synaptobrevin.
  • Target membrane: syntaxin, SNAP-25.
  • Other molecules aid in the disassembly and recycling of SNARE proteins, assisting in future neurotransmitter release.

Exocytosis of Neurotransmitters

  • The arrival of an action potential at the presynaptic terminal stimulates calcium entry.
  • Vesicular membranes fuse with the presynaptic membrane.
  • Neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic cleft.

Excitatory vs Inhibitory post-synaptic responses

  • Neurotransmitters can evoke excitatory or inhibitory responses depending on the receptors they act on and the resulting ion flow.
  • Excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) increase the likelihood of action potential generation, often by depolarizing the postsynaptic membrane.
  • Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs) reduce the likelihood of action potential generation, often by hyperpolarizing the postsynaptic membrane.

Chemical Synapses are Flexible

  • Synaptic strength can change due to modifications in neurotransmitter release and receptor numbers.
  • These plasticity changes are essential for learning and memory processes (including addiction).

Classification of Neurotransmitters

  • Amino acids: glutamate, aspartate, GABA, glycine, etc.
  • Biogenic amines: dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, histamine, etc.
  • Neuropeptides: endorphins, etc.
  • Acetylcholine

Neurotoxins

  • Some toxins can promote neurotransmitter release (e.g., black widow spider venom).
  • Others inhibit release (e.g., botulinum toxin, tetanus toxin, batrachotoxin).

Botox

  • Botox is derived from botulinum toxin.
  • It inhibits acetylcholine release, weakening muscles.
  • Medical uses include reducing wrinkles, treating muscle spasms, and migraines.

Unconventional Neurotransmitters

  • Endocannabinoids, gasotransmitters (e.g., nitric oxide), purinergic signaling molecules (ATP), and adenosine.
  • These molecules often act as modulators of classic neurotransmitter systems.
  • They are less commonly stored in synaptic vesicles than other neurotransmitters.

Ionotropic and Metabotropic Receptors

  • Neuroreceptors categorized as ionotropic or metabotropic based on signaling mechanisms.
  • Ionotropic receptors are ligand-gated ion channels.
  • Metabotropic receptors are G protein-coupled receptors.
  • Both function to change ion flow and affect post-synaptic potential, but ionotropic processes are faster.

Ionotropic Receptors

  • Direct activation of ion channels by neurotransmitters.
  • Fast, short-acting responses.
  • Receptor changes shape in response to neurotransmitter binding, causing ion channels to open or close.

Metabotropic Receptors

  • Signal transduction pathways are involved, causing slower, but often longer-lasting responses.
  • Usually involve intracellular signaling cascades.
  • Receptors are G-protein coupled. Changes in ion channel activity or other cellular responses like gene expression.

Metabotropic Receptors in Memory and Learning

  • Synaptic plasticity is key for learning and memory.
  • Metabotropic receptors play a crucial role in changing the strength of synapses.
  • They significantly affect the process of neurotransmission in the hippocampus.

Neurotransmitter Receptor Summary

  • A summary table outlining the types of receptors for various neurotransmitters (ionotropic and metabotropic) including function and properties (e.g., excitatory or inhibitory effects).

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Lecture 1_neurotransmission, transmitters, and receptors PDF

Description

This quiz delves into the biochemistry of neurotransmitters, highlighting their structures, functions, and the various receptors involved. It covers key neurotransmitters such as dopamine and serotonin, their agonists and antagonists, and their implications in diseases like anxiety and Parkinson's. Gain insights into how these neurotransmitters can be pharmacologically modified for treatment.

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