Biochemistry: Glycolipids and Mixtures

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Questions and Answers

What are the main components of neutral glycolipids?

Fatty acid, triglycerides, carbohydrates

Fatty acid, sphingosine, glucose

Fatty acid, sphingosine, carbohydrates (correct)

Fatty acid, glycerol, sphingosine

Which glycolipid is predominantly found in extra neural tissues?

Ceramide

Galactocerebroside

Gangliosides

Glucocerebroside (correct)

What is a major function of acidic glycolipids (gangliosides)?

Mediating cell-cell recognition (correct)

Storage of excess carbohydrates

Facilitating cellular energy production

Transporting cholesterol in blood

What disease is characterized by an accumulation of gangliosides in the brain?

Tay-Sach's disease (D) Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of lipoproteins in the body?

Transport of lipids between blood and tissues (C) Signup and view all the answers

What particle size is characteristic of a solution?

0.1 – 1 nm (D) Signup and view all the answers

Which type of mixture can be separated by filter paper?

Suspension (D) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about colloids is true?

They scatter light but do not settle out. (C) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes a solution?

A homogeneous mixture that changes properties upon dissolving. (D) Signup and view all the answers

Which property distinguishes solutions from suspensions?

Do not settle out on standing. (C) Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of gravity on colloids?

They remain suspended regardless of time. (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about solutes and solvents is correct?

Solutes alter the physical properties of solvents. (B) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following mixtures is considered heterogeneous?

Oil and water (C) Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary component of low-density lipoprotein (LDL)?

Cholesterol (C) Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of bile salts?

Assist in lipid digestion (C) Signup and view all the answers

Which lipoprotein has the highest protein percentage?

α-lipoprotein (B) Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the functions of cholesterol in the body?

It is a precursor for steroid hormones. (C) Signup and view all the answers

How is Vitamin D3 formed in the body?

From 7-dehydrocholesterol under UV light. (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which lipoprotein is primarily formed in the intestine?

Chylomicrons (C) Signup and view all the answers

What role do bile acids play in the body?

They enhance lipid absorption. (D) Signup and view all the answers

What is the source of NEFA in the body?

Adipose tissue (B) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following amino acids is classified as essential?

Leucine (C) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following amino acids can give rise to glucose during its catabolic pathways?

Glycine (A) Signup and view all the answers

What type of amino acid is tryptophan classified as?

Essential (D) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is not classified as a derived amino acid?

Valine (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which classification of amino acids includes those that cannot be synthesized by the body?

Essential amino acids (D) Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of semi-essential amino acids?

They can be synthesized under certain conditions. (B) Signup and view all the answers

Which amino acid is formed by the conjugation of two cysteines via disulfide linkage?

Cystine (C) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is classified as a ketogenic amino acid?

Leucine (B) Signup and view all the answers

What is the method for estimating the amount of amino acid based on nitrogen content?

Dividing the amount of nitrogen by 2 (C) Signup and view all the answers

What type of reaction results in the formation of an amine from an amino acid?

Decarboxylation (C) Signup and view all the answers

Which reaction is specific to tryptophan when exposed to conc. sulfuric acid and Rosenheim's reagent?

Rosenheim reaction (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which amino acid does not react positively in the sulfur reaction test?

Methionine (C) Signup and view all the answers

What color is produced in the Xanthoproteic reaction involving phenylalanine?

Orange (B) Signup and view all the answers

What product is formed when glutamic acid reacts with ammonia?

Glutamine (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a result of the Millon reaction when testing for tyrosine?

Red color after boiling (C) Signup and view all the answers

What reaction type is described by amino acids reacting with alcohol?

Esterification (A) Signup and view all the answers

What are the two amino acids that chemically combine to form L-carnosine?

β-alanine and histidine (B) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a biological function of glutathione (GSH)?

Preventing hemolysis of red blood cells (D) Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about proteins is true regarding their structure?

Proteins consist of amino acid residues linked by peptide bonds (D) Signup and view all the answers

What role does L-carnosine play in muscle biology?

It improves muscle strength and exercise performance (D) Signup and view all the answers

Which protein is known for its structural function in protecting cells against injury?

Keratin (C) Signup and view all the answers

What is the consequence of an alteration in amino acid sequences in proteins?

It results in abnormal function or diseases (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about glutathione is incorrect?

It is a tripeptide found only in fruits (D) Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the transport functions of proteins?

Carrying calcium and fatty acids (B) Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

General Chemistry - Physical Chemistry - Matter

Matter is anything that has mass and volume.
Examples of matter include cups, pens, and erasers.
Matter is composed of atoms and molecules.
Atoms are made of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
Protons have a positive charge.
Neutrons have no charge.
Electrons have a negative charge and orbit the nucleus.
Atoms are constantly moving.
The nucleus is the positively charged center of an atom.
The combination of atoms leads to materials with a variety of properties.
Atoms are the building blocks of matter.
Atoms' sizes are on the order of 10⁻⁸ cm.
Nuclei's typical size is about 10⁻¹² cm.
Quarks' typical size is about 10⁻¹⁶ cm.
Electrons' typical size is about 10⁻¹⁶ cm.

General Chemistry - Physical Chemistry - States of Matter

Matter exists in four states: solid, liquid, gas, and plasma.
Solids have a definite mass, volume, and shape.
Liquid has a definite mass and volume but not a definite shape.
Gases have no definite mass, volume, or shape.
Particles in solids are tightly packed, vibrating about fixed positions.
Particles in liquids are tightly packed but can slide past each other.
Particles in gases are very far apart and move freely.
Plasma is an ionized gas, a good conductor of electricity, and affected by magnetic fields.
Examples of plasma include lightning, auroras, and neon.
Matter changes state as more energy is added.

General Chemistry - Physical Chemistry - Phase Changes

Melting: a solid changes to a liquid when heat is applied. This happens at a set temperature called the melting point for pure substances.
Freezing: a liquid turns to a solid when its temperature is below the freezing point.
Vaporization: a liquid turns to a vapor (gas) -- This includes evaporation (liquid to vapor at temperatures below the boiling point) and boiling (transition to vapor at the boiling point).
Condensation: a vapor (gas) turns to a liquid.
Sublimation: a solid turns directly to a vapor (gas).

General Chemistry - Physical Chemistry - Intermolecular Forces

Intermolecular forces (van der Waals forces) are attractive forces between individual particles (atoms, molecules, or ions) of a substance.
These forces are much weaker than intramolecular forces (covalent, ionic bonds).
Molecular shape influences the strength of intermolecular attraction.
Linear molecules have a larger surface area, enhancing intermolecular contact, and thus a stronger dispersion force compared to spherical molecules.

General Chemistry - Physical Chemistry - Kinetic Energy

Kinetic energy is the energy an object or particle possesses due to its motion.
The kinetic molecular theory of gases describes the behavior of gases reasonably accurately, focusing on the relationship between kinetic energy and intermolecular forces.
The state of a substance depends on the balance between the kinetic energy of the individual particles and the intermolecular forces.

General Chemistry - Physical Chemistry - Properties of Gases, Liquids and Solids

Gases are composed of widely spread molecules.
Liquids have molecules that flow easily around each other.
Solids have tightly packed molecules vibrating around fixed positions.
Gases expand to fill their containers.
Liquids take the shape of their containers.
Solids maintain a fixed shape.
Liquids and solids have a definite volume.
Gases are less dense than liquids or solids.
Unlike gases, liquids and solids are far less compressible.

General Chemistry - Physical Chemistry - Solutions

A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.
It is composed of a solute (substance that dissolves) and a solvent (substance that does the dissolving).
Solutions differ in the concentration of the dissolved solute.
Solute concentration is expressed as the amount of solute in a certain amount of solvent at a particular temperature.

General Chemistry - Physical Chemistry - Solubility

Solubility is the amount of a substance that will dissolve in a given amount of solvent under certain conditions (temperature and pressure).
Factors affecting the rate at which solids dissolve in a liquid include temperature, particle size, and stirring/shaking.
Generally, the solubility of solid solutes in liquid solvents increases with increasing temperature.

General Chemistry - Physical Chemistry - Types of Liquid Solutions

Miscible solutions mean that liquids can easily dissolve into one another.
Examples include water and ethanol, or water and acetone.
Semi-miscible solutions can dissolve into one another under specific conditions.
Examples include water and phenol, or water and ether.
Immiscible solutions mean that liquids are not able to dissolve into one another.
Examples include water and benzene or water and chloroform.

General Chemistry - Physical Chemistry - Solubility and Concentration

Unsaturated solutions have a low concentration of solute dissolved under particular conditions.
Saturated solutions have dissolved as much solute as possible under current conditions; they have the maximum concentration possible.
Supersaturated solutions contain more solute than normally possible; they are unstable and can precipitate solute as conditions change.

General Chemistry - Physical Chemistry - Osmosis and Diffusion

Osmosis is the diffusion of water through a semi-permeable membrane from an area of high water concentration to an area of low water concentration.
Solutions can be classified into isotonic (same solute concentration as the cell), hypotonic (lower solute concentration than cell), and hypertonic (higher solute concentration than cell).
Diffusion is the random movement of substances from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.
Kidney dialysis is an example of diffusion.

General Chemistry - Physical Chemistry - Colloids

A colloid is a heterogeneous mixture where particles are spread throughout a dispersion medium (liquid, solid, or gas).
Examples of colloids include milk, fog, and smoke.
Colloids have properties that differ from suspensions or solutions, including not separating into layers over time and not separating through filtration.
Light scattering (Tyndall effect) can be used to distinguish colloids.
Types of colloids include gels, sols, emulsions, and aerosols.

General Chemistry - Physical Chemistry - Applications of Colloids

There are many applications for colloids in everyday life. For instance, colloids act as thickening agents in products such as lubricants, lotions, and toothpaste.
Colloidal particles are involved in water purification.
Colloidal solutions of silver bromide in gelatin are used in photography, while paints and inks in ballpoint pens use gel-based colloids.
Colloidal dispersions are used for smoke screens in warfare.
Colloidal materials' ability to adhere to the surfaces makes them useful in certain types of medications.

General Chemistry - Physical Chemistry - Properties of Colloids

Colloids are heterogeneous mixtures with particles that are intermediate in size (smaller than suspensions, larger than solutions).
They do not separate in layers over time.
They do not separate through filtration.
Light scattering (Tyndall effect) is used to distinguish them from other mixtures.

General Chemistry - Properties of Matter

Matter is any substance that has mass and occupies space.
Matter can exist in solid, liquid, or gaseous phases, depending on temperature and pressure.
Matter is composed of basic building blocks called atoms and/or molecules.
The properties of matter are determined by its composition and structure: Chemical properties describe how substances react with others. Physical properties describe the substance's appearance, state, and behavior.

Carbohydrate Chemistry

Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones.
They are represented by the general formula Cₙ(H₂O)ₙ.
They are the primary source of energy for humans.
Carbohydrates are classified into monosaccharides (1 basic sugar unit), disaccharides (2 units), oligosaccharides (3-10 units), and polysaccharides (>10 units).
Examples of carbohydrates include glucose, sucrose, amylose, and fructose.
Naming often depends on the presence/absence of aldehyde or ketone groups in the molecule.

Carbohydrate Chemistry - Monosaccharides

Nomenclature of monosaccharide names depends on the presence or absence of an aldehyde or ketone group, along with the number of carbon atoms present in the molecule.
Trioses are monosaccharides containing 3 carbon atoms.
Tetroses are monosaccharides containing 4 carbon atoms.
Pentoses are monosaccharides containing 5 carbon atoms.
Hexoses are monosaccharides containing 6 carbons.
Monosaccharides can have a cyclic or a linear structure.
α and β forms of sugars have slight differences in the arrangement of atoms around the anomeric carbon.

Carbohydrate Chemistry - Ring Structure of Sugars

Open chain formulas of sugars fail to explain certain properties or reactions of specific sugars.
Cyclic forms can mask or combine aldehyde/ketone groups to give better explanations of properties in sugar reactions.
Sugars can exist in α or β configurations.

Carbohydrate Chemistry - Properties of Monosaccharides

Most monosaccharides are highly soluble in water.
They have properties related to optical activity.
Monosaccharides can exist in a or ẞ forms.
Monosaccharides undergo mutarotation.

Carbohydrate Chemistry - Isomerism

Optical isomers differ in their spatial arrangement.
A single asymmetric carbon atom leads to two possible forms (enantiomers).
Monosaccharides with multiple asymmetric carbons have more possible forms.
Isomerism is one of the ways to classify these types of molecules.

Carbohydrate Chemistry - Epimeric Carbon

Epimers are isomers that differ in the configuration around only one specific carbon atom.

Carbohydrate Chemistry - Anomeric Carbon and Anomers

The anomeric carbon is the carbon that undergoes change from the carbonyl group in the linear form to a hydroxyl group in the cyclic form.
The cyclic isomers (α and β forms) of glucose are examples of anomers.

Carbohydrate Chemistry - Mutarotation

Mutarotation is a gradual change in optical rotation observed in some monosaccharides in solution.
The change in optical rotation occurs due to the interchanging of α and β forms in solution, leading to an equilibrium between these two forms.

Carbohydrate Chemistry - Aldose-Ketoses Isomerism

Fructose and glucose have the same molecular formula but differ in their structural formula (one contains a keto group and the other an aldehyde).

Carbohydrate Chemistry - Chemical Properties

Monosaccharides can be oxidized to form aldonic acids, uronic acids, or saccharic acids.
They can also be reduced to form sugar alcohols.
They can react with phenylhydrazine to form osazones, allowing different sugars to be identified by the structure of the resultant crystals.
They can react with alkalis to form polymers or isomerize.
They can react with acids.
They can undergo fermentation.

Carbohydrate Chemistry - Monosaccharide Derivatives

Sugar acids: are oxidized derivative of monosaccharides from aldehyde or hydroxyl group in position C1 and /or C6.
Sugar alcohols: are the reduced derivatives of monosaccharides (lacks aldehyde or ketone groups).
Deoxy sugars: have a hydroxyl group replaced by hydrogen.
Amino sugars: have a hydroxyl group substituted by an amino group often acetylated.
Amino sugar acids: condense amino sugars and some acids to make the building unit of structural polysaccharides.
Glycosides: are formed by combining monosaccharides with other molecules with a bond from the hydroxyl group of the anomeric carbon.

Carbohydrate Chemistry - Disaccharides

Maltose is composed of two α glucose molecules.
Isomaltose is composed of two α glucose molecules.
Lactose is composed of β galactose and β glucose.
Sucrose is composed of α glucose and β fructose.
Cellobiose is composed of two β glucose molecules.
Trehalose is composed of two α glucose molecules.

Carbohydrate Chemistry - Polysaccharides

Polysaccharides are polymers containing more than 10 monosaccharide monomers.
They are classified as homopolysaccharides (same monomer) or heteropolysaccharides (different monomers).
Examples of homopolysaccharides include starch (amylose and amylopectin), glycogen, and cellulose.
Examples of heteropolysaccharides include hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfates, and keratin sulfate.

Lipid Chemistry

Lipids are a diverse group of organic compounds, mostly composed of hydrocarbons and insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar organic solvents.
They play key roles in energy storage, cell membrane structure, and signaling.
Lipids are classified as simple, compound, or derived lipids, along with miscellanous lipids.

Lipid Chemistry - Simple Lipids

These are esters of fatty acids and alcohols.
Examples include TAGs (triacylglycerols) and waxes.
TAGs are the primary storage form of fat, while waxes have various functions including waterproofing and lubrication.

Lipid Chemistry - Compound Lipids

These contain fatty acids, alcohols, and other components (e.g., phosphoric acid, nitrogenous bases, carbohydrates).
They include phospholipids (glycerophospholipids -glycerol as alcohol- and sphingophospholipids -sphingosine as alcohol- ), glycolipids (neutral and acidic gangliosides), and lipoproteins (lipids combined with proteins).

Lipid Chemistry - Derived Lipids

These are formed from simple or compound lipids when they are modified or broken down (e.g., through hydrolysis or oxidation).
Examples include fatty acids, sterols (e.g., cholesterol), and eicosanoids.
Sterols and steroids are cyclic compounds (e.g., cholesterol, ergosterol, vitamin D, bile acids).

Lipid Chemistry - Waxes

Waxes are simple lipids with long-chain fatty acids esterified with long-chain alcohols.
They are solids at room temperature.
They have hydrophobic properties and are used for waterproofing, lubrication, and protection in various biological systems.

Lipid Chemistry - Fatty Acids - Classification

Fatty acids are long-chain hydrocarbon molecules with a carboxyl group (-COOH) at one end.
Fatty acids are classified based on their saturation (saturated vs. unsaturated), the presence of sulfur or hydroxy groups, or their chain branching (branched vs. unbranched) or cyclic nature.
Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds between carbon atoms in the hydrocarbon chain.
Unsaturated fatty acids contain one or more double bonds between carbon atoms in the hydrocarbon chain.
Additional classification divides these unsaturated fatty acids into mono- and polyunsaturated forms based on the number of double bonds.

Lipid Chemistry - Fatty Acids - Properties

Saturated fatty acids are typically solid at room temperature, while unsaturated fatty acids are usually liquid.
The degree of unsaturation of a fatty acid influences its melting point.
The presence of double bonds in unsaturated fatty acids creates bends in the molecules, preventing close packing.

Lipid Chemistry - Fat Constants

Some key constants (e.g., saponification value, acid value, iodine value, acetyl value) are determined for fats and oils to assess purity, quality, and potential adulteration.

Protein Chemistry

Proteins are complex organic compounds that are composed of long chains of amino acid residues joined together by peptide bonds.
Proteins have vital functions in biological systems, including structural support, catalysis, transport, and signaling.
Proteins are often classified based on their composition, shape, or biological function.

Protein Chemistry - Amino Acids - General Structure

Structurally, amino acids have an amino group (-NH₂), a carboxyl group (-COOH), a hydrogen atom (H), and a variable side chain (R group) connected to the central carbon (α-carbon).
Amino acids are classified according to their R group chemical properties, and/or whether they are essential nutrients (must be consumed) or nonessential (body produces them).
The R group differences create significant variations in the specific properties and functions of individual amino acids.

Protein Chemistry - Amino Acid - Classification

Amino acids are classified into several groups:
- Aliphatic (neutral).
- Aromatic.
- Basic.
- Acidic.
- Hydroxy containing.
- Sulfur containing.
Classification by nutritional value (essential/non-essential), the way they are broken down in metabolism (ketogenic/glucogenic).

Protein Chemistry - Amino Acids - Properties

Protein Chemistry - Derivation of Amino Acids

Some amino acids undergo modifications after being incorporated into proteins.
- 4-hydroxyproline
- 5-hydroxylysine
- Cystine

Protein Chemistry - Non-Protein and Non-α-Amino Acids

These are amino acids that are not found in proteins but play vital roles in metabolic processes.
- Alanine,
- Glutathione, and others.

Protein Chemistry - Peptide Bonds

Peptides are short chains of amino acids.
Larger peptides, polypeptides, and proteins are chains of more amino acids.

Protein Chemistry - Protein Structure

Proteins have four levels of structure:

Primary: simple linear sequence of amino acids.
Secondary: folding patterns (α-helix, β-sheet).
Tertiary: overall 3-D shape of the polypeptide chain.
Quaternary: 3-D assembly of multiple polypeptide chains.

Protein Chemistry - Protein Denaturation

Denaturation is the unfolding of a protein's 3-D structure.
This occurs under certain conditions (e.g., high temperatures, non-polar solvents, changes in pH), and often results in decreased function.
The structure disruption leads to changes in the protein’s physical or chemical properties.

Protein Chemistry - Protein Properties

Protein Chemistry - Protein Classification

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Test your knowledge on glycolipids, their components, and functions, as well as the characteristics of solutions, colloids, and heterogeneous mixtures. This quiz covers key concepts in biochemistry, focusing on lipids and mixtures relevant to biological systems.