Biochemistry Chapter: Water and Biological Macromolecules

Biochemistry and Life Processes

• Water is essential for living things, making up 70-95% of organisms.
• Water is a polar molecule, allowing it to dissolve a wide range of substances, and has a high specific heat, helping to regulate temperature.
• All living things undergo growth, repair, reproduction, gas exchange, metabolism, and response, which involve biological macromolecules.

Biological Macromolecules

• The four main categories of biological macromolecules are:
  • Nucleic acids (made of nucleotides, containing DNA)
  • Proteins (made of amino acids, including enzymes)
  • Carbohydrates (made of monosaccharides)
  • Lipids (made of glycerol and fatty acids)
• All biological macromolecules contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

Proteins and Enzymes

• Proteins are biological macromolecules that perform a wide range of functions in the cell.
• Enzymes are a type of protein that lower the activation energy of chemical reactions, making them more efficient.
• Enzymes are specific to the molecules they react with, remain unchanged after a reaction, and work best in specific conditions (e.g. pH, temperature).

Metabolism and Cellular Respiration

• Cellular respiration is the process of generating energy for the cell from glucose and oxygen.
• The equation for cellular respiration is: glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + ATP (energy)
• ATP is used by the cell to perform various functions, such as muscle contraction.

Photosynthesis

• Photosynthesis is the process of generating glucose and oxygen from carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight.
• The equation for photosynthesis is: carbon dioxide + water + sunlight → glucose + oxygen.
• Photosynthesis occurs in organisms with chloroplasts, such as plants and green algae.

Protein Synthesis

• Protein synthesis is the process of creating proteins from DNA.
• The process involves:
  • Transcription: creating a messenger RNA (mRNA) copy of the DNA sequence.
  • Translation: using the mRNA sequence to build a chain of amino acids.
  • Amino acids are linked together by peptide bonds to form a polypeptide chain.

Cell Structure and Function

• The cell theory states that all living things are composed of cells, cells are the basic units of life, and all cells come from other cells.
• Cell membranes are composed of a phospholipid bilayer.
• Cells have genetic information (DNA) and cytoplasm, which holds the cell's materials.
• The cell cycle involves mitosis, where the cell divides and splits its genetic material into two new daughter cells.

Cell Transport

• Cell transport is the movement of molecules into and out of the cell.
• Types of cell transport include:
  • Diffusion: the movement of molecules from high to low concentration.
  • Facilitated diffusion: the movement of molecules from high to low concentration with the help of a transport protein.
  • Active transport: the movement of molecules from low to high concentration, requiring ATP energy.

Osmosis

• Osmosis is the movement of water from high to low concentration.
• The solute sucks principle: water moves towards the area with higher solute concentration.
• Types of osmotic environments:
  • Isotonic: equal concentration of solutes inside and outside the cell.
  • Hypotonic: lower concentration of solutes outside the cell.
  • Hypertonic: higher concentration of solutes outside the cell.

Cell Specialization

• Cell specialization is the process of cells becoming specialized to perform specific functions.
• Structure dictates function, with cells adapting to their specific roles through changes in shape and form.
• Examples of specialized cells include neurons, red blood cells, and epithelial cells.

Organelles

• Organelles are structures within cells that have specialized functions.

• Examples of organelles include:

  • Nucleus: contains DNA.
  • Mitochondria: generates energy for the cell.
  • Chloroplasts: performs photosynthesis in plant cells.
  • Ribosomes: site of protein synthesis.
  • Vacuoles: stores water and other materials.
  • Cell wall: provides structural support and protection in plant cells.### Cellular Organelles

• Mitochondria: responsible for cellular energy creation through cellular respiration

• Vacuole: used for storage, represented by simple circles with a blank space in them

• Ribosomes: small dots, responsible for protein synthesis

• Nucleus: stores genetic information (DNA) in eukaryotic organisms, located at the center of the cell

• Cell membrane: provides a semi-permeable barrier, represented by a phospholipid bilayer, allowing some substances in and out of the cell

• Cell wall: provides structure and support, another layer of protection, geometric in shape (not in animal cells)

Cellular Classification

• Eukaryotic cells: have a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, generally larger and more complex (e.g., plant and animal cells)
• Prokaryotic cells: more primitive, lack membrane-bound organelles, typically smaller and simpler (e.g., bacteria)
• Prokaryotic cell features: no nucleus, DNA is free-floating (nucleoid), ribosomes present for protein synthesis, cell membrane present for cytoplasm containment

Biochemistry and Life Processes

• Water makes up 70-95% of organisms and is essential for living things.
• Water's polar molecule structure allows it to dissolve a wide range of substances.
• Water's high specific heat helps regulate temperature.

Biological Macromolecules

• The four main categories of biological macromolecules are nucleic acids, proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids.
• All biological macromolecules contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
• Nucleic acids are made of nucleotides and contain DNA.
• Proteins are made of amino acids and include enzymes.
• Carbohydrates are made of monosaccharides.
• Lipids are made of glycerol and fatty acids.

Proteins and Enzymes

• Proteins perform a wide range of functions in the cell.
• Enzymes are a type of protein that lower the activation energy of chemical reactions.
• Enzymes are specific to the molecules they react with and remain unchanged after a reaction.
• Enzymes work best in specific conditions, such as pH and temperature.

Metabolism and Cellular Respiration

• Cellular respiration generates energy for the cell from glucose and oxygen.
• The equation for cellular respiration is: glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + ATP (energy).
• ATP is used by the cell to perform various functions, such as muscle contraction.

Photosynthesis

• Photosynthesis generates glucose and oxygen from carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight.
• The equation for photosynthesis is: carbon dioxide + water + sunlight → glucose + oxygen.
• Photosynthesis occurs in organisms with chloroplasts, such as plants and green algae.

Protein Synthesis

• Protein synthesis is the process of creating proteins from DNA.
• Transcription involves creating a messenger RNA (mRNA) copy of the DNA sequence.
• Translation involves using the mRNA sequence to build a chain of amino acids.
• Amino acids are linked together by peptide bonds to form a polypeptide chain.

Cell Structure and Function

• The cell theory states that all living things are composed of cells, cells are the basic units of life, and all cells come from other cells.
• Cell membranes are composed of a phospholipid bilayer.
• Cells have genetic information (DNA) and cytoplasm, which holds the cell's materials.
• The cell cycle involves mitosis, where the cell divides and splits its genetic material into two new daughter cells.

Cell Transport

• Cell transport is the movement of molecules into and out of the cell.
• Types of cell transport include diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and active transport.
• Diffusion is the movement of molecules from high to low concentration.
• Facilitated diffusion involves the movement of molecules from high to low concentration with the help of a transport protein.
• Active transport involves the movement of molecules from low to high concentration, requiring ATP energy.

Osmosis

• Osmosis is the movement of water from high to low concentration.
• The solute sucks principle: water moves towards the area with higher solute concentration.
• Types of osmotic environments include isotonic, hypotonic, and hypertonic.
• Isotonic environments have equal concentration of solutes inside and outside the cell.
• Hypotonic environments have lower concentration of solutes outside the cell.
• Hypertonic environments have higher concentration of solutes outside the cell.

Cell Specialization

• Cell specialization is the process of cells becoming specialized to perform specific functions.
• Structure dictates function, with cells adapting to their specific roles through changes in shape and form.
• Examples of specialized cells include neurons, red blood cells, and epithelial cells.

Organelles

• Organelles are structures within cells that have specialized functions.
• Examples of organelles include nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, ribosomes, and vacuoles.
• Nucleus contains DNA.
• Mitochondria generates energy for the cell.
• Chloroplasts performs photosynthesis in plant cells.
• Ribosomes is the site of protein synthesis.
• Vacuoles stores water and other substances.

This quiz covers the importance of water in living organisms, its properties, and the four main categories of biological macromolecules. Understand the role of water and macromolecules in life processes.