Biochemistry: ATP, Acid/Base, and O2 Dynamics
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Questions and Answers

What primarily causes hypoxemia due to impaired breathing?

  • Increased tidal volume
  • Excessive airflow
  • Hyperventilation
  • Hypoventilation (correct)

What is the major force responsible for pushing fluid out of the capillaries during filtration?

  • Lymphatic pressure
  • Interstitial fluid pressure
  • Capillary oncotic pressure
  • Capillary hydrostatic pressure (correct)

Which condition could lead to a mismatch in ventilation and perfusion (V/Q mismatch)?

  • Airway block preventing air exchange (correct)
  • Excess oxygen levels in blood
  • Increased lung compliance
  • Increased tidal volume

Which protein is mainly responsible for capillary oncotic pressure and reabsorption?

<p>Albumin (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In healthy individuals, what role does the RAAS play in the body?

<p>Maintaining balance of blood pressure and tissue perfusion (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of hypersensitivity reaction is characterized by the immediate release of IgE and histamine from mast cells?

<p>Type I Hypersensitivity (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of hypersensitivity reaction is based on antigen-antibody complexes affecting tissues?

<p>Type III Hypersensitivity (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which symptom is NOT typically associated with a Type I hypersensitivity reaction?

<p>Muscle weakness (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In Type II hypersensitivity reactions, what do antibodies primarily attack?

<p>Acetylcholine receptors (A), Basement membranes (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following conditions is classified as a Type III hypersensitivity reaction?

<p>Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common cause of adrenal crisis?

<p>Sudden discontinuation from glucocorticoids (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a sign of adrenal crisis?

<p>Increased appetite (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In Type II Diabetes Mellitus, what happens to insulin receptors over time?

<p>They are down-regulated (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which symptom is associated with diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA)?

<p>Fruity-scented breath (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes Type I Diabetes Mellitus?

<p>Autoimmune destruction of beta cells (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which condition can occur in individuals with uncontrolled Type 1 Diabetes?

<p>Diabetic Ketoacidosis (DKA) (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of these situations increases the risk of developing DKA?

<p>Blood glucose of &gt; 250 mg/dl (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the underlying cause of ketoacidosis in diabetic patients?

<p>Lack of insulin leading to fat breakdown (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What kind of obstruction does intussusception refer to?

<p>Telescoping bowel obstruction (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which condition is characterized by mucosal and submucosal ulcerations?

<p>Ulcerative colitis (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about transient ischemic attacks (TIAs) is true?

<p>TIAs typically resolve in no more than 1 hour. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is considered a primary risk factor for cerebrovascular accidents (CVA)?

<p>Hypertension (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential consequence of an overactive RAAS in individuals with hypertension?

<p>Increased blood vessel tone (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of obstruction involves a piece of bowel slipping through a tear in muscle?

<p>Herniation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of anemia is characterized by small cell size and low color?

<p>Microcytic hypochromic (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a key characteristic of Crohn’s disease?

<p>Transmural inflammation leading to fissures (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What risk factor is most associated with increased intracranial pressures during seizures?

<p>Seizure duration (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is produced by the endothelium and not the liver?

<p>Factor 8 (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of jaundice results from increased hemolysis of red blood cells?

<p>Hemolytic jaundice (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which test measures the effectiveness of warfarin?

<p>PT/INR (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What genetic condition is characterized as an autosomal recessive disease affecting red blood cells?

<p>Sickle Cell Disease (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What can trigger a sickle cell crisis?

<p>Dehydration (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which immune cells are part of the second line of defense in the inflammatory response?

<p>Neutrophils (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does endotoxic shock result from?

<p>Bacterial toxins (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary cause of atherosclerosis?

<p>Cholesterol accumulation (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which term defines the pressure the heart must overcome to eject blood during systole?

<p>Afterload (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What condition results in a decrease in GFR and urine output while affecting nitrogenous waste accumulation?

<p>Acute Kidney Injuries (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which form of hypothyroidism involves an autoimmune response that destroys the thyroid gland?

<p>Hashimoto's thyroiditis (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of parathyroid hormone?

<p>Increase blood calcium levels (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What impact does preload have on stroke volume?

<p>Increases with increased preload (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of hypersensitivity reaction is characterized by a delayed response and is cell-mediated?

<p>Type IV hypersensitivity (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does a high creatinine level indicate regarding kidney function?

<p>Decreased glomerular filtration rate (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the most common cause of adrenal crisis?

<p>Sudden discontinuation from glucocorticoids (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which symptom is commonly associated with diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA)?

<p>Fruity-scented breath (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In which type of diabetes does the pancreas still produce insulin but cells are resistant to it?

<p>Type II Diabetes Mellitus (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What occurs when glucose cannot enter the cells due to a lack of insulin?

<p>Hyperglycemia (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which electrolyte imbalances can occur during an adrenal crisis?

<p>Low sodium and high potassium (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary cause of DKA in individuals with diabetes?

<p>Insufficient insulin availability (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a classic sign of adrenal crisis?

<p>Acute shock unresponsive to fluids (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What chronic condition can lead to down-regulation of insulin receptors?

<p>Chronic obesity (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a main consequence of overactivity in the RAAS for individuals with hypertension?

<p>Salt and water retention (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which classification of anemia is associated with iron deficiencies and small cell size?

<p>Microcytic hypochromic (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is produced by the endothelium rather than the liver?

<p>Factor 8 (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the PT/INR test primarily evaluate in relation to anticoagulant therapy?

<p>Extrinsic pathway effectiveness (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In sickle cell disease, what primarily occurs to cause sickling of red blood cells?

<p>Protein polymerization (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of cells are involved in the second line of defense during an inflammatory response?

<p>Neutrophils and macrophages (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of shock is associated with the body's response to bacterial toxins?

<p>Endotoxic shock (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common symptom associated with HIV infection as the disease progresses?

<p>Anorexia and weight loss (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic feature of Ulcerative Colitis?

<p>Pseudopolyps (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of bowel obstruction is characterized by a twisted intestine?

<p>Volvulus (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between Transient Ischemic Attacks (TIA) and strokes?

<p>TIAs last no more than 1 hour, while strokes do not have a time limit. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary risk factor associated with hemorrhagic strokes?

<p>Hypertension (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In Crohn's disease, the inflammation primarily affects which layers of the intestinal wall?

<p>Transmural (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What complication can arise from portal hypertension?

<p>Esophageal varices (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements is true regarding cerebral vascular accidents (CVA)?

<p>CVA can be ischemic or hemorrhagic. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of mechanical bowel obstruction involves scar tissue formation?

<p>Adhesions (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What condition is most commonly associated with coronary artery disease?

<p>Atherosclerosis (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes preload in cardiac physiology?

<p>Filling pressure during diastole (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes Type IV hypersensitivity reactions from other types?

<p>They are cell-mediated (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary consequence of acute kidney injury?

<p>Decreased glomerular filtration rate (GFR) (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of cardiac function is influenced by afterload?

<p>The pressure needed to eject blood during systole (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which renal condition results from damage to the kidneys themselves?

<p>Intra-renal injury (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes the imbalance between coronary blood supply and myocardial demand?

<p>Coronary artery disease (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is likely a sign of hypothyroidism?

<p>Fatigue and lethargy (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What describes the primary effect of a Type I hypersensitivity reaction within 5-30 minutes of allergen exposure?

<p>Release of histamine from mast cells (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In a Type II hypersensitivity reaction, which effect is primarily caused by antibodies attacking specific tissue antigens?

<p>Muscle weakness due to receptor damage (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which condition is associated with Type III hypersensitivity due to antigen-antibody complex deposition?

<p>Goodpasture’s syndrome (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a typical symptom of a Type I hypersensitivity reaction?

<p>Bronchospasms and upper airway swelling (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which component is primarily responsible for the prolonged effects observed in delayed hypersensitivity reactions?

<p>Leukocyte infiltration and prostaglandin release (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does acidosis have on the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve?

<p>It reduces hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Under which condition would hemoglobin have a higher affinity for oxygen?

<p>In a state of alkalosis. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What physiological change happens when the body experiences a rise in temperature regarding oxygen transport?

<p>Oxygen is more readily released to tissues. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does low partial pressure of CO2 affect hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen?

<p>It decreases the amount of oxygen released from hemoglobin. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which condition would most likely cause a right shift in the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve?

<p>Increased production of lactic acid. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Adrenal Crisis

A life-threatening condition caused by severe adrenal insufficiency of cortisol, potentially due to trauma, Addison's disease, or abrupt glucocorticoid discontinuation.

Adrenal Crisis Symptoms

Includes acute shock (unresponsive to fluids), hypotension, tachycardia, weakness, fatigue, decreased appetite/weight, orthostatic hypotension, and electrolyte imbalances.

Type 1 Diabetes

An autoimmune disease where the body attacks insulin-producing cells in the pancreas, requiring exogenous insulin for glucose regulation.

Type 2 Diabetes

A condition with insulin resistance, where cells are unresponsive to insulin's signal, leading to high blood glucose & circulating triglycerides.

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Diabetic Ketoacidosis (DKA)

A serious complication of diabetes, caused by a lack of insulin, leading to elevated blood glucose, ketone production, and potentially life-threatening acidosis.

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DKA Risk Factors

Includes type 1 diabetes, missed insulin doses, blood glucose elevated over 250mg/dL x 2, ketones in the urine or illness/infection causing stress to the body.

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High Blood Glucose (Hyperglycemia)

A condition characterized by excessive glucose levels in the blood, often a concern in diabetes.

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Insulin Resistance

A condition where the body's cells fail to respond normally to the effects of insulin. This results in elevated blood sugar levels.

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Mallory-Weiss tears

Vertical, shallow tears in the esophagus caused by vomiting, leading to bleeding.

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Intussusception

Telescoping bowel obstruction; one part of the intestine slides into another.

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Crohn's disease

Chronic inflammatory bowel disease with skip lesions; affects small and large intestine.

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Ulcerative colitis

Chronic inflammatory bowel disease affecting the large intestine continuously.

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Transient Ischemic Attack (TIA)

Episodes of temporary neurological dysfunction lasting less than an hour, due to focal ischemia.

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Ischemic stroke

Stroke caused by blocked blood vessels.

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Hemorrhagic stroke

Stroke caused by bleeding in the brain.

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Cerebral vascular disease

Any brain abnormality caused by a blood vessel issue (e.g., blockage, rupture, increased viscosity).

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Hypoxemia definition

Low oxygen in the blood.

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Causes of Hypoxemia

Hypoventilation, diffusion impairment, V/Q mismatch, and shunts.

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Filtration in capillaries

Fluid moving OUT of the blood vessels (capillaries).

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Reabsorption in capillaries

Fluid moving BACK INTO the blood vessels (capillaries).

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RAAS role in healthy people

Maintains blood pressure and tissue perfusion.

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Hypersensitivity Reactions (HSRs)

Over-reactive immune responses that cause tissue damage. They're classified into four types based on the immune mechanisms involved.

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Type I HSR: Anaphylaxis

A severe, life-threatening allergic reaction triggered by IgE antibodies, causing rapid release of histamine and other inflammatory mediators from mast cells.

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Type II HSR: Tissue-Specific

Antibodies directly attack specific cells or tissues, causing damage. Examples include Myasthenia Gravis and Goodpasture's Syndrome.

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Type III HSR: Immune Complex

Antigen-antibody complexes form and deposit in blood vessels or tissues, triggering inflammation, like in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE).

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Type IV HSR: Cell-Mediated

T cells directly attack target cells, causing delayed reactions, as seen in contact dermatitis (e.g., poison ivy).

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Type IV Hypersensitivity

A delayed immune response that is cell-mediated, meaning it does not involve antibodies. It's triggered by T cells recognizing antigens and causing inflammation, often leading to reactions like contact dermatitis and delayed graft rejection.

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Preload

The amount of blood filling the heart during diastole (relaxation phase). It's affected by blood volume and pressure, essentially determining how stretched the heart is before contraction.

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Contractility

The heart's ability to contract forcefully and efficiently. It's influenced by factors like calcium levels and medications.

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Afterload

The resistance the heart needs to overcome to pump blood out during systole (contraction). In essence, the pressure it needs to push against.

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Cardiac Output (CO)

The amount of blood pumped by the heart per minute. It's calculated by multiplying the stroke volume (the volume of blood pumped per beat) by the heart rate.

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Atherosclerosis

A disease where plaque builds up in blood vessel walls, narrowing them and obstructing blood flow. It's caused by cholesterol being engulfed by macrophages.

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Acute Kidney Injury (AKI)

A sudden decrease in kidney function, often indicated by reduced glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and urine output. This leads to a buildup of waste products in the blood.

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Hypothyroidism

A condition where the thyroid gland doesn't produce enough thyroid hormone, leading to various symptoms like fatigue, weight gain, and slower metabolism.

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RAAS in HTN

In people with high blood pressure (HTN), the Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS) can become overactive, leading to increased water and salt retention and vasoconstriction, further raising blood pressure.

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Types of Anemia

Anemia is a deficiency in red blood cells (RBCs). It can be classified by RBC size and color:

  1. Microcytic hypochromic: small, pale RBCs (iron deficiency, chronic bleeding).
  2. Macrocytic normochromic: large, normal color RBCs (vitamin B12 deficiency).
  3. Normocytic normochromic: normal size and color RBCs (blood loss).
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Clotting Factors

Most clotting factors are made in the liver, EXCEPT factor 8, which is produced by the endothelium. A deficiency in clotting factors increases the risk of bleeding.

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PT/INR and PTT

PT/INR and PTT are tests that measure clotting time. PT/INR measures the extrinsic pathway, useful for warfarin monitoring. PTT measures the intrinsic pathway, useful for heparin monitoring.

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Sickle Cell Disease

Sickle cell disease is an inherited autosomal recessive disorder where abnormal hemoglobin causes RBCs to sickle, leading to pain, edema, acute chest syndrome, kidney problems, and infections.

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Sickle Cell Crisis

A sickle cell crisis occurs when sickle-shaped RBCs block blood flow, causing pain, swelling, and potentially organ damage. This is triggered by stress, dehydration, or infection.

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Inflammatory Response

The inflammatory response is the second line of defense against infection. It involves neutrophils, macrophages, and other cells releasing histamine, cytokines, and clotting factors.

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Endotoxic Shock

Endotoxic shock is a severe, life-threatening condition caused by bacteria releasing toxins, leading to widespread inflammation, blood vessel dilation, and organ failure.

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What is DKA at risk for?

Individuals with Type 1 diabetes, missed insulin doses, blood sugar over 250 mg/dL for 2 hours, ketones in urine, or any stressors like infection.

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What are the signs of Adrenal Crisis?

Acute shock unresponsive to fluids, low blood pressure, fast heart rate, weakness, fatigue, decreased appetite, and orthostatic hypotension.

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What are the signs of Diabetic Ketoacidosis?

Fruity-scented breath, nausea and vomiting, frequent urination, thirst, fatigue, and confusion.

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What is the main difference between Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes?

Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disorder where the pancreas cannot produce insulin. Type 2 diabetes occurs when the body's cells become resistant to insulin, even though the pancreas is still producing it.

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PaO2

Partial pressure of oxygen dissolved in arterial blood. It measures how well oxygen moves from the lungs into the bloodstream for delivery to the body.

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Oxygen Saturation (SpO2)

Percentage of hemoglobin sites carrying oxygen compared to all available hemoglobin sites. It reflects how much oxygen is bound to hemoglobin.

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Oxygen Affinity

Hemoglobin's tendency to bind oxygen. High affinity means hemoglobin holds onto oxygen tightly, while low affinity means it releases oxygen easily.

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Right Shift of the Oxygen-Hemoglobin Dissociation Curve

Conditions like acidosis, high temperature, or increased CO2 cause hemoglobin to release oxygen more readily to tissues. This can lead to hypoxia if oxygen uptake in the lungs is also reduced.

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Left Shift of the Oxygen-Hemoglobin Dissociation Curve

Conditions like alkalosis, low temperature, or low CO2 cause hemoglobin to hold onto oxygen more tightly. This can lead to less oxygen delivery to tissues if oxygen release is needed.

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GERD

Gastroesophageal reflux disease, where stomach acid flows back into the esophagus, causing irritation and damage.

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Barrett's Esophagus

A condition where the lining of the esophagus changes due to chronic GERD, increasing the risk of esophageal cancer.

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Volvulus

A twisted intestine causing obstruction.

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Herniation

A condition where a piece of bowel protrudes through a tear in a muscle.

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Adhesions

Scar tissue formation after surgery or injury that can cause bowel obstruction.

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Crohn's vs. Ulcerative Colitis

Both are chronic inflammatory bowel diseases, but Crohn's affects the small and large intestine with skip lesions, while ulcerative colitis affects the large intestine continuously with mucosal ulcerations.

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Anaphylaxis

A severe and life-threatening allergic reaction characterized by widespread vasodilation, bronchospasm, and a rapid drop in blood pressure, potentially leading to shock.

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Myasthenia Gravis

An autoimmune disease where antibodies attack acetylcholine receptors at neuromuscular junctions, leading to muscle weakness and fatigue.

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Goodpasture's Syndrome

An autoimmune disease characterized by antibodies attacking the basement membranes of the lungs and kidneys, causing respiratory and renal complications.

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Microcytic Hypochromic Anemia

This type of anemia has small, pale red blood cells. It is often caused by iron deficiency or chronic blood loss.

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Macrocytic Normochromic Anemia

This type of anemia has large red blood cells with normal color. It is often caused by vitamin B12 deficiency.

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Normocytic Normochromic Anemia

This type of anemia has normal-sized red blood cells with normal color. It is often caused by blood loss.

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What clotting factors are made by the liver?

Most clotting factors are produced by the liver, EXCEPT factor 8, which is produced by the endothelium.

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What causes a sickle cell crisis?

A sickle cell crisis occurs when sickle-shaped red blood cells block blood flow, causing pain, swelling, and potential organ damage. They are often triggered by stress, dehydration, or infection.

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Type IV HSR

A delayed immune response that involves T cells directly attacking target cells, causing inflammation. It is NOT antibody-mediated.

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Cardiac Output

The amount of blood pumped by the heart per minute. It's calculated by multiplying the stroke volume (the volume of blood pumped per beat) by the heart rate.

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Study Notes

Importance of ATP and Oxidative Phosphorylation

  • ATP and oxidative phosphorylation are vital biochemical processes.

Acid/Base Balance

  • Interpretation of acid-base balance is crucial.
  • Common conditions associated with imbalances need to be understood.
  • Effects of imbalances on the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve are significant.

Understanding O2 Carrying: Vocabulary You Need to Know

  • PaO2 is the partial pressure of oxygen in arterial blood. It measures how well oxygen moves from the lungs to the bloodstream.
  • Oxygen content in arterial blood is measured.
  • Oxygen saturation (SpO2) is the percentage of hemoglobin binding sites carrying oxygen relative to all available sites. A SpO2 of 99% means 99% of hemoglobin is carrying oxygen.
  • O2 Affinity is how readily hemoglobin binds to oxygen. Higher affinity means stronger binding, which means less oxygen is released in tissues.

Oxygen-Hgb Dissociation Curve – Right Shift

  • Oxygen dissociates from hemoglobin and moves to tissues due to acidosis, lactic acid production, loss of bicarbonate (e.g., diarrhea), high CO levels in lungs, and high temperatures.

Oxygen-Hgb Dissociation Curve – Left Shift

  • Oxygen binds more strongly to hemoglobin when there is alkalosis (e.g., vomiting), low temperatures, and low CO2 levels. This makes it harder for oxygen to leave hemoglobin.

Hypoxemia

  • Low blood oxygen.
  • Causes include: hypoventilation, diffusion impairment, and ventilation/perfusion mismatch.
  • Other causes like blood vessel or cardiac malformations can also lead to hypoxemia.

Filtration and Reabsorption

  • Filtration: Fluid moves out of capillaries due to hydrostatic pressure.
  • Reabsorption: Fluid moves back into capillaries due to oncotic pressure (primarily from albumin). Excess fluid drains into lymph.

Mechanisms of Edema Formation

  • Mechanisms describe how fluid accumulates in tissues.

RAAS and Hypertension

  • The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) regulates blood pressure by influencing salt and water retention and blood vessel tone. Issues with RAAS can impact blood pressure.

RBC's and Anemia

  • Anemia classifications include microcytic hypochromic (small/low color), macrocytic normochromic (large/normal color), and normocytic normochromic (normal/normal color). Various factors such as iron deficiency, chronic bleeding, or vitamin deficiencies can cause different types of anemia.

Plasma Protein System: Clotting

  • Clotting factors are proteins crucial for blood clotting. Most are made in the liver, and some are produced by endothelial cells.

Sickle Cell Disease

  • An inherited disorder causing abnormal hemoglobin.
  • Sickling of red blood cells can result in pain, organ damage, and other complications.

Inflammatory Response

  • Inflammation is a second line of defense. Neutrophils, macrophages, dendritic cells and mast cells are all involved in the response.. Important inflammatory chemical messengers include histamine and pro-inflammatory cytokines.

Viral Infections

  • Viral infections need host cell DNA to replicate, and invade cells to do so.
  • Key examples such as HIV are included.

Hypersensitivity Reactions: Anaphylaxis

  • Anaphylaxis is a type I hypersensitivity reaction.
  • Mediated by IgE.
  • Allergen exposure triggers mast cells and eosinophils to release inflammatory mediators like histamine.

Other HSR's

  • This section describes various forms of hypersensitivity reactions.
  • Examples such as myasthenia gravis and Goodpasture's syndrome are included.

Cardiac Terms

  • Preload – filling pressure during diastole.
  • Contractility – the heart's ability to contract.
  • Afterload – pressure the heart needs to push against during systole.

Coronary Artery Disease

  • Vascular disorders narrow or block coronary arteries.

Heart Failure

  • Heart failure occurs when the heart's ability to pump blood is insufficient to meet the body's needs.

Atelectasis

  • Collapse of lung tissue.

Acute Kidney Injuries

  • Acute kidney injury (AKI) causes a reduction in glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and urine output, leading to nitrogenous waste accumulation. Causes include pre-renal (e.g., low blood volume), intrarenal (kidney injury), and post-renal (e.g., obstruction).

Thyroid and Parathyroid Conditions

  • Hypothyroidism is one condition studied.

Adrenal Crisis

  • Life-threatening conditions caused by sudden decrease in cortisol and sometimes aldosterone production.

Diabetes Mellitus

  • Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune condition where the pancreas doesn't produce insulin, and type 2 is characterized by insulin resistance.

Complications from Diabetes: DKA

  • Lack of insulin causes the body to use fats as an energy source, resulting in accumulation of ketones.

GI

  • Various gastrointestinal conditions are discussed.

Crohn's vs UC

  • These are two inflammatory bowel diseases with differing characteristics.

Esophageal varices and liver diseases

  • Portal hypertension is a key concept associated with cirrhosis of the liver.

Portal Hypertension and Ascites

  • Conditions that lead to portal hypertension and ascites (fluid buildup in the abdomen) are discussed.

Types of Jaundice

  • Conditions leading to jaundice in various body systems are examined.

Cerebral Vascular Disease

  • Conditions related to cerebral vascular disease are discussed.

TIA's vs. Strokes

  • Transient Ischemic Attacks (TIA) are discussed in the context of stroke.

Other Neuro Conditions

  • Various neurological disorders are presented.

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Patho Final Exam Review_FA24 Final PDF

Description

Explore the crucial biochemical processes of ATP production, oxidative phosphorylation, and the intricate relationship of acid-base balance. Understand key concepts like oxygen carrying capacity and the significance of the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve. This quiz is perfect for students looking to deepen their knowledge in biochemistry and physiology.

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