Biochemical Systems and Metabolic Pathways

Metabolic Pathways

• Metabolic pathways are chemical processes crucial for cell functions like growth, development, and energy production.
• Catabolism breaks down molecules for energy, whereas anabolism builds complex molecules from simpler ones.

Enzymes and Catalysis

• Enzymes are specialized proteins that catalyze specific reactions by binding to substrates to form enzyme-substrate complexes.
• Enzyme specificity ensures acceleration of particular reactions without affecting others.

Energy Production

• Energy is primarily generated in the form of ATP through processes such as cellular respiration, photosynthesis, and fermentation.
• Energy production is vital for various cellular activities.

Protein Synthesis

• Protein synthesis involves transcription (DNA to mRNA) and translation (mRNA to protein), forming essential macromolecules for cellular functions.

Signal Transduction

• Signal transduction enables cells to respond to external stimuli through a complex network of receptors, enzymes, and signaling molecules.
• This process ensures effective communication within and between cells.

Metabolism and Disease

• Metabolism encompasses all chemical reactions sustaining life, including energy conversion and tissue maintenance.
• Disruptions in metabolic processes can lead to various diseases and health issues.

Genetics and Biochemical System

• Biochemical systems are shaped by genetic information encoded in DNA, affecting metabolic pathways and cellular functions.

Biochemical Analysis Techniques

• Techniques include spectrophotometry, chromatography, electrophoresis, mass spectrometry, and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy for analyzing biological components.

Biochemical Engineering

• Biochemical engineering combines biological science and engineering principles to develop processes and products involving biological systems.

Biochemical Adaptation

• Biochemical adaptation allows organisms to adjust their physiological and metabolic functions according to environmental changes, occurring over short or long time frames.

Cell Organelles

• Organelles are specialized structures within cells performing essential functions, such as the nucleus (genetic material), Golgi apparatus (processing), and mitochondria (energy production).

Types of Mutations

• Somatic mutations occur in non-reproductive cells and may lead to conditions like cancer, affecting the individual but not passed to offspring.
• Germ-line mutations occur in gametes and can be transmitted to future generations, influencing heredity and evolution.

Spontaneous Mutations

• Spontaneous mutations arise naturally from internal processes, like DNA replication errors, leading to random genetic variation crucial for evolution.

Causes of Spontaneous Mutations

• Errors during DNA replication may result in incorrect base pairing or tautomeric shifts that alter genetic information.
• Transposable elements can disrupt normal gene function, contributing to genomic instability.

Mosaicism

• Mosaicism involves an individual having genetically different cells, arising from mutations occurring after fertilization.
• Somatic mosaicism affects body cells without impacting reproductive cells, while gonadal mosaicism occurs in germ cells and can be passed to offspring.

Factors Inducing Mosaicism

• Endogenous factors include mobile elements and DNA polymerase slippage, while exogenous factors involve external agents like UV and ionizing radiation.

Ionizing Radiation

• Ionizing radiation can damage or alter DNA, leading to potential mutations, with sources including X-rays and gamma rays.

Radioactive Decay

• Radioactive decay transforms unstable isotopes into stable ones through alpha decay (emitting protons/neutrons), beta decay (emitting electrons), and gamma decay (emitting electromagnetic radiation).

X-Rays

• X-rays have high energy and short wavelengths, capable of penetrating most objects, used in medical imaging (e.g., CT scans) and security applications.