Questions and Answers
What is pyruvate transformed into?
lactate
Insulin signaling results in an increased transport of ________ into cells, which allows the cell to subsequently increase ______ synthesis and store energy in the form of ______ in the liver and ______ in the adipose.
Resistance to the effects of insulin leads to which type of diabetes mellitus?
How do GluT transporters aid in glucose transport into a cell?
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A type II diabetes patient who has been on metformin treatment and has a current A1C level reading of 7%. What does this indicate about his treatment response?
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Why would a marathon runner be advised to carb load before a race?
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What dietary consideration should Jason, who has a glycogen storage disease, keep in mind?
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How can Billy continue his hunger strike long after his glycogen supply has been used up?
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What is the physiological benefit of consuming a meal containing 80% complex carbohydrates before a climb?
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What is most likely to happen with a patient who has not eaten a full meal for three months?
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Which statement is true for a child with glycogen storage disease regarding glucose metabolism?
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Which of the following is the main source of energy used in the cell?
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Which of the following is a coenzyme? (check all that apply)
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Metformin treatment is able to lower blood glucose levels by _______ gluconeogenesis in the liver cells and _________ Glut4 translocation in the muscle or fat cells.
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Which processes occur in the mitochondria? (check all that apply)
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Carbohydrates, fatty acids, and amino acids can all enter the citric acid cycle through which molecule?
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During oxidative phosphorylation, the enzyme _______ produces ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate.
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Insulin is a hormone that is secreted when blood glucose is _______. This hormone stimulates _______ in the cell.
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When oxygen is low, muscle and liver cells can participate in the Cori Cycle in which the muscle cells produce ________ which is then converted to ________ in the liver.
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In the electron transport chain, the movement of electrons provides energy that allows ______ to be pumped through the membrane leading to an accumulation in the __________.
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What is the formula for glucose?
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The breakdown of starch is ________ process.
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The Cori cycle is an anaerobic or aerobic?
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Aerobic respiration generates around ____ ATP per glucose molecule.
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What is step 1 of the 3-step process that glucose undergoes to create ATP?
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What is step 2 of the 3-step process that glucose undergoes to create ATP?
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What is step 3 of the 3-step process that glucose undergoes to create ATP?
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Oxygen is not required for this phase of the process to break down glucose and create ATP.
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What is the central pathway in aerobic respiration?
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What is a three-carbon compound that is one of the products of glycolysis?
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Glucose production, or ________________________ , serves to supply glucose once glycogen stores are exhausted.
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_____________________ is a broad term used to describe the process of producing energy from carbohydrates in the absence of oxygen.
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The process of converting the lactate to glucose is known as ______________.
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What are the two key roles of gluconeogenesis?
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Lactate's conversion back into glucose in the liver cell is referred to as the lactic acid cycle or the ______________ ________________.
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The Cori Cycle includes the breakdown of glucose by ____________ , which produces __ ATP.
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The creation of glucose through the process of gluconeogenesis requires __ ATP and is an _____ process.
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During gluconeogenesis, how many ATP molecules are consumed for each glucose molecule produced?
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Which molecule signals the liver to release glucose by breaking down glycogen?
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Which molecule is regenerated with the production of lactate during anaerobic metabolism?
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During aerobic metabolism, acetyl-CoA is produced from which molecule?
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Why would a marathon runner consume a large meal full of complex carbohydrates the night before her run?
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Why must red blood cells rely solely on glycolysis to make ATP?
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What are advanced glycation end products (AGEs)?
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Why are blood glucose levels high in patients with unmanaged Diabetes Mellitus?
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What kind of molecule is glycogen?
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What happens in the liver cells when they respond to insulin?
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What is the function of fermentation during anaerobic metabolism?
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How does the proton gradient affect the pH of the mitochondrial matrix and the intermembrane space?
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If a patient is healthy and has a normal oxygen concentration in her blood, approximately how many ATP are produced for every molecule of glucose that enters the process of metabolism?
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A defect in an enzyme in the citric acid cycle causes the cycle to stop functioning. What is a possible consequence?
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Which of the following best describes the role of ATP synthase?
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Which of the following occur during aerobic respiration?
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Glycolysis is the conversion of glucose to pyruvate. Is this a catabolic process or an anabolic process?
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Which of the following is an accurate statement about glycolysis?
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Cyanide binds to complex IV of the electron transport chain, preventing electron transport. Which of the following would be the most immediate effect of cyanide consumption?
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Glucose that is phosphorylated after entering the cell cannot move through GLUT transporters.
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During the reactions of the Electron Transport Chain, hydrogens are pumped by complexes _________ and move from the matrix to the _________.
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What is the fate of pyruvate when oxygen is absent?
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There is no energy gained (and in fact energy is required) when converting pyruvate to lactate. Why is this a necessary step?
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Glycolysis produces two ATP molecules through which process?
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Under anaerobic conditions in humans, which molecule is formed in the cytosol by fermentation?
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When oxygen is low, muscle and liver cells can participate in the Cori Cycle in which the muscle cells produce _______ which is then converted to _______ in the liver.
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Which of the following is expected to occur when oxygen is not present?
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What happens to glucose under anaerobic conditions?
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Why is the Cori Cycle important for red blood cells?
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The figure of the Cori Cycle demonstrates how glucose is consumed in the muscle cell and regenerated in the liver. How many ATP are produced in the muscle cell when glucose is broken down and how many ATP are consumed in the liver when glucose is regenerated?
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Anabolic pathways result in larger molecules being made from smaller molecules and Catabolic pathways result in larger molecules being broken down into smaller molecules.
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In the absence of oxygen in the exercising muscle, why does the amount of lactate in the blood change?
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Starting with one molecule of glucose, compare the amount of ATP made in aerobic vs anaerobic respiration.
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What is anaerobic metabolism?
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Which molecules undergo anaerobic metabolism?
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Glycolysis produces two ATP molecules. Through what process are these ATP molecules made?
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Which of the following differentiates aerobic from anaerobic cellular metabolism?
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Which of the following is incorrectly paired?
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Which of the following best describes the purpose of fermentation?
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During periods of strenuous exercise, the muscle cells can become anaerobic. Without oxygen, the electron transport chain cannot continue and the citric acid cycle slows down. When this occurs, how do cells make ATP?
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Study Notes
Gluconeogenesis
- Six ATP molecules are consumed to produce each glucose molecule during gluconeogenesis.
Hormonal Regulation of Glucose
- Glucagon signals the liver to release glucose by breaking down glycogen.
- High glucose levels stimulate insulin release, promoting glycogen formation and decreasing blood glucose levels.
Anaerobic Metabolism
- NAD+ is regenerated during anaerobic metabolism with the production of lactate, allowing glycolysis to continue.
- In the absence of oxygen, pyruvate is converted to lactate and enters the Cori cycle.
Aerobic Metabolism
- Acetyl-CoA is produced from pyruvate during aerobic metabolism after glycolysis.
- Approximately 30 ATP are produced for every glucose molecule metabolized under normal oxygen levels during aerobic respiration.
Glycogen
- Glycogen is a complex carbohydrate that serves as a storage form of glucose in the body.
Red Blood Cells and ATP Production
- Red blood cells rely purely on glycolysis for ATP production due to the absence of mitochondria.
Advanced Glycation End Products (AGEs)
- AGEs are formed when glucose molecules bind to lipids or proteins without enzymatic assistance, often associated with diabetes complications.
Diabetes and GLUT4 Transporters
- Unmanaged Diabetes Mellitus leads to high blood glucose levels because cells do not transport enough GLUT4 transporters to their surfaces for glucose uptake.
Insulin Effects on Liver Cells
- Insulin stimulates GLUT4 transporter movement to cell surfaces, reducing glycogen breakdown while promoting glucose uptake.
Electron Transport Chain and ATP Synthase
- ATP synthase generates ATP as protons flow down their concentration gradient into the mitochondrial matrix.
- The proton gradient is crucial for ATP production, and disturbances can lead to ATP depletion.
Glycolysis Characteristics
- Glycolysis is a catabolic process converting glucose to pyruvate, yielding a net production of two ATP molecules through substrate-level phosphorylation.
Consequences of Electron Transport Chain Inhibition
- Cyanide inhibits complex IV, causing ADP to accumulate and significantly decreasing ATP production due to halted proton pumping.
Cori Cycle Importance
- The Cori cycle allows muscle cells to convert lactate into glucose in the liver, contributing to energy metabolism during anaerobic conditions.
Anabolic vs Catabolic Pathways
- Anabolic pathways build larger molecules from smaller ones, while catabolic pathways break down larger molecules into smaller units.
Lactate and Blood Levels
- During anaerobic respiration, increased lactate levels in the blood occur as lactate produced in muscles is transported to the liver.
Comparative ATP Production
- Aerobic respiration produces about 30 ATP per glucose molecule, while anaerobic respiration yields about 2 ATP.
Diabetes Mellitus Types
- Type II diabetes arises from insulin resistance, whereas Type I diabetes is characterized by autoimmune destruction of insulin-producing cells.
Glucose Transport by GluT Transporters
- GluT transporters function as channels facilitating the transport of glucose into cells, integral for glucose metabolism and storage.### A1C Levels in Treatment Response
- Normal range of A1C levels in healthy individuals for effective treatment response is 0-10%.
- A lower range of 0-5% indicates a lack of treatment response.
Marathon Preparation and Carbohydrate Loading
- Carbohydrate loading increases glucose levels, essential for energy during prolonged exercise like a marathon.
- Glycogenesis allows cells to convert excess glucose into glycogen for rapid energy use when glucose levels drop.
Glycogen Storage Disease Dietary Considerations
- A patient with glycogen storage disease should consume a low carbohydrate diet due to difficulty utilizing stored glycogen for energy.
Energy Sources During Hunger Strike
- Prolonged fasting leads to the use of fatty acids, glycerol, and some amino acids for gluconeogenesis to maintain glucose supply for vital functions, such as brain activity.
Physiological Benefits of Carbohydrate-rich Meals
- Consuming meals rich in complex carbohydrates prior to physical exertion enhances glycogen storage in the liver and muscles.
Malnutrition and Muscle Mass Loss
- Advanced cancer patients with prolonged inadequate intake are likely to experience losses in both adipose tissue and muscle mass.
Pediatric Glycogen Storage Disease Characteristics
- In children with glycogen storage diseases, incomplete glucose metabolism results in increased intermediate compounds, promoting glycogen production.
Primary Energy Source in Cells
- Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the main energy source used by cells for various metabolic processes.
Coenzymes in Cellular Metabolism
- Important coenzymes include CoA, FADH2, and Q10, which facilitate enzymatic reactions.
Metformin's Mechanism of Action
- Metformin lowers blood glucose by decreasing gluconeogenesis in the liver and increasing Glut4 translocation in muscle and fat cells.
Processes Occurring in Mitochondria
- Key metabolic processes within mitochondria include the Citric Acid Cycle, Electron Transport Chain, and Beta Oxidation.
Entry Points to the Citric Acid Cycle
- Carbohydrates, fatty acids, and amino acids all enter the Citric Acid Cycle as Acetyl-CoA.
ATP Production in Oxidative Phosphorylation
- ATP synthase is the enzyme responsible for producing ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate during oxidative phosphorylation.
Insulin Response to Blood Glucose
- Insulin is secreted when blood glucose levels are high, stimulating glycogenesis to help lower glucose levels.
Cori Cycle Functionality
- The Cori Cycle facilitates the conversion of lactate produced in muscles into glucose in the liver, operating under anaerobic conditions.
Electron Transport Chain Dynamics
- In the electron transport chain, electron movements allow protons to be pumped into the intermembrane space, establishing a gradient essential for ATP synthesis.
Role of Glycolysis
- Glycolysis is an anaerobic process that breaks down glucose to generate ATP without requiring oxygen.
Aerobic Respiration ATP Yield
- Aerobic respiration typically generates approximately 30 ATP for each glucose molecule utilized.
Sequence of ATP Production Steps
- The breakdown of glucose in muscle cells occurs in three stages: glycolysis, citric acid cycle, and electron transport chain with oxidative phosphorylation.
Gluconeogenesis Overview
- Gluconeogenesis is the process that produces glucose to supply energy when glycogen stores are depleted, particularly critical in prolonged fasting situations.
Fermentation Process
- Fermentation describes energy production from carbohydrates under anaerobic conditions, without the need for oxygen.
Lactic Acid Cycle and Gluconeogenesis
- In the lactic acid cycle, lactate produced is converted back to glucose through gluconeogenesis in the liver.
The Cori Cycle's ATP Dynamics
- Glycolysis, a catabolic process, produces 2 ATP from glucose, while gluconeogenesis, an anabolic process, creates glucose requiring 6 ATP.
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Test your knowledge on carbohydrates and ATP with these flashcards focused on gluconeogenesis and glucose regulation. Understand key molecules like glucagon and the ATP consumption involved in glucose production. Ideal for students in Biochemistry C785.