Podcast
Questions and Answers
What resets NADH back to NAD+?
What resets NADH back to NAD+?
- Glycolysis prep step
- Step one – creation of citrate
- Citric Acid Cycle (correct)
- Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex
Which enzyme is responsible for the creation of citrate in the Citric Acid Cycle?
Which enzyme is responsible for the creation of citrate in the Citric Acid Cycle?
- Isocitrate
- Aconitase
- Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex
- Citrate synthase (correct)
What drives the reaction forward in the step involving aconitase in the Citric Acid Cycle?
What drives the reaction forward in the step involving aconitase in the Citric Acid Cycle?
- Formation of FADH2
- Aconitate intermediate (correct)
- Formation of NADH
- CO2 production
In the Citric Acid Cycle, which enzyme produces NADH and CO2 during an exergonic reaction?
In the Citric Acid Cycle, which enzyme produces NADH and CO2 during an exergonic reaction?
Which enzyme in the Citric Acid Cycle involves substrate-level phosphorylation?
Which enzyme in the Citric Acid Cycle involves substrate-level phosphorylation?
What enzyme in the Citric Acid Cycle is attached to the inner mitochondrial membrane and serves as part of the Electron Transport Chain?
What enzyme in the Citric Acid Cycle is attached to the inner mitochondrial membrane and serves as part of the Electron Transport Chain?
What is the consequence of uncontrolled type 1 diabetes mellitus on ketone bodies in the liver?
What is the consequence of uncontrolled type 1 diabetes mellitus on ketone bodies in the liver?
What is the relationship between insulin and glucagon levels?
What is the relationship between insulin and glucagon levels?
What is the effect of glucagon on glycolysis?
What is the effect of glucagon on glycolysis?
Why does ketogenesis occur in uncontrolled type 1 diabetes mellitus despite high blood sugar levels?
Why does ketogenesis occur in uncontrolled type 1 diabetes mellitus despite high blood sugar levels?
What is the effect of glucagon on gluconeogenesis?
What is the effect of glucagon on gluconeogenesis?
What is the effect of glucagon on beta oxidation?
What is the effect of glucagon on beta oxidation?
What are the three types of molecules that can be catabolized to feed into the Citric Acid Cycle (CAC)?
What are the three types of molecules that can be catabolized to feed into the Citric Acid Cycle (CAC)?
Which molecule has an entry point via pyruvate to enter the Citric Acid Cycle?
Which molecule has an entry point via pyruvate to enter the Citric Acid Cycle?
What are the overall products of the Citric Acid Cycle?
What are the overall products of the Citric Acid Cycle?
Which coenzyme is used in the Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex (PDH complex) to pick up the acetyl group?
Which coenzyme is used in the Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex (PDH complex) to pick up the acetyl group?
Which enzyme releases CO2 during the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA in the PDH complex?
Which enzyme releases CO2 during the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA in the PDH complex?
Which of the following represents the energy yield from one round of the Citric Acid Cycle?
Which of the following represents the energy yield from one round of the Citric Acid Cycle?
What is the end product of the last round of beta oxidation of an odd-numbered fatty acid?
What is the end product of the last round of beta oxidation of an odd-numbered fatty acid?
How many fewer ATP are produced from a propionyl CoA compared to an acetyl CoA?
How many fewer ATP are produced from a propionyl CoA compared to an acetyl CoA?
What is the effect of a propionyl CoA entering the citric acid cycle?
What is the effect of a propionyl CoA entering the citric acid cycle?
What is the deficiency in an MCAD deficiency?
What is the deficiency in an MCAD deficiency?
How much less energy is obtained from the full beta oxidation of a 16:2 fatty acid compared to a 16:0 fatty acid?
How much less energy is obtained from the full beta oxidation of a 16:2 fatty acid compared to a 16:0 fatty acid?
Which fatty acid provides more energy after beta oxidation?
Which fatty acid provides more energy after beta oxidation?
What is the result of low oxaloacetate levels in beta oxidation MCAD deficiency?
What is the result of low oxaloacetate levels in beta oxidation MCAD deficiency?
Which treatment approach is recommended for infants with beta oxidation MCAD deficiency?
Which treatment approach is recommended for infants with beta oxidation MCAD deficiency?
In peroxisomal beta oxidation, how are very long chain fatty acids (VLCFA’s) metabolized?
In peroxisomal beta oxidation, how are very long chain fatty acids (VLCFA’s) metabolized?
What is the major difference between peroxisomal beta oxidation and mitochondrial beta oxidation?
What is the major difference between peroxisomal beta oxidation and mitochondrial beta oxidation?
Why is early identification crucial for infants with beta oxidation MCAD deficiency?
Why is early identification crucial for infants with beta oxidation MCAD deficiency?
Which metabolic pathway is impaired in beta oxidation MCAD deficiency leading to lethargy in infants?
Which metabolic pathway is impaired in beta oxidation MCAD deficiency leading to lethargy in infants?
What is the primary purpose of triglycerides in the liver?
What is the primary purpose of triglycerides in the liver?
What is the role of hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL) in adipose tissue?
What is the role of hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL) in adipose tissue?
What is the result of lipolysis in adipose tissue?
What is the result of lipolysis in adipose tissue?
Which hormones regulate hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL)?
Which hormones regulate hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL)?
What is the purpose of lipoproteins in the liver?
What is the purpose of lipoproteins in the liver?
What is the sequential process of lipolysis in adipose tissue?
What is the sequential process of lipolysis in adipose tissue?
What is the primary purpose of lipoproteins in the liver?
What is the primary purpose of lipoproteins in the liver?
During lipolysis, what is the main function of hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL)?
During lipolysis, what is the main function of hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL)?
What is the fate of free fatty acids (ffa's) released from adipose tissue during lipolysis?
What is the fate of free fatty acids (ffa's) released from adipose tissue during lipolysis?
Which enzyme is responsible for converting diacylglycerol (DAG) to monoacylglycerol (MAG) during lipolysis?
Which enzyme is responsible for converting diacylglycerol (DAG) to monoacylglycerol (MAG) during lipolysis?
What is the function of lipoproteins in transporting fatty acids and cholesterol?
What is the function of lipoproteins in transporting fatty acids and cholesterol?
What is the primary role of Glycerol-3-P in the formation of lipoproteins for energy storage?
What is the primary role of Glycerol-3-P in the formation of lipoproteins for energy storage?
What is the first step in beta oxidation of fatty acids?
What is the first step in beta oxidation of fatty acids?
What is the purpose of the carnitine transport system in beta oxidation?
What is the purpose of the carnitine transport system in beta oxidation?
How is the energy yield from beta oxidation determined?
How is the energy yield from beta oxidation determined?
What is the role of a translocase in beta oxidation?
What is the role of a translocase in beta oxidation?
What is the significance of fatty acyl CoA activation in beta oxidation?
What is the significance of fatty acyl CoA activation in beta oxidation?
How do fatty acyl CoA's enter the mitochondria for beta oxidation?
How do fatty acyl CoA's enter the mitochondria for beta oxidation?
How many acetyl CoA molecules does a 16:0 fatty acid produce?
How many acetyl CoA molecules does a 16:0 fatty acid produce?
What is the total number of FADH2 molecules produced from beta oxidation of a 16:0 fatty acid?
What is the total number of FADH2 molecules produced from beta oxidation of a 16:0 fatty acid?
How many ATP molecules are produced from the beta oxidation of a 16:0 fatty acid, excluding those produced in the Citric Acid Cycle?
How many ATP molecules are produced from the beta oxidation of a 16:0 fatty acid, excluding those produced in the Citric Acid Cycle?
What is the total ATP yield from one acetyl CoA undergoing the Citric Acid Cycle?
What is the total ATP yield from one acetyl CoA undergoing the Citric Acid Cycle?
How many ATP molecules are produced from 7 NADH molecules generated during the beta oxidation of a 16:0 fatty acid?
How many ATP molecules are produced from 7 NADH molecules generated during the beta oxidation of a 16:0 fatty acid?
What is the end product of the first reaction in the Citric Acid Cycle?
What is the end product of the first reaction in the Citric Acid Cycle?
Which molecule is created after the preparatory step to connect glycolysis to the Citric Acid Cycle via the Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex?
Which molecule is created after the preparatory step to connect glycolysis to the Citric Acid Cycle via the Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex?
How does acetyl CoA enter the Citric Acid Cycle?
How does acetyl CoA enter the Citric Acid Cycle?
What does the Citric Acid Cycle produce directly?
What does the Citric Acid Cycle produce directly?
Which molecule connects both glycolysis and beta oxidation to the Citric Acid Cycle?
Which molecule connects both glycolysis and beta oxidation to the Citric Acid Cycle?
What is the enzyme responsible for combining acetyl CoA and oxaloacetate to form citrate in the Citric Acid Cycle?
What is the enzyme responsible for combining acetyl CoA and oxaloacetate to form citrate in the Citric Acid Cycle?
What is the primary function of lipoproteins that contain triglycerides in the liver?
What is the primary function of lipoproteins that contain triglycerides in the liver?
Which of the following correctly represents an important function of free fatty acids released from adipose tissue during lipolysis?
Which of the following correctly represents an important function of free fatty acids released from adipose tissue during lipolysis?
In the process of lipolysis, what enzyme is responsible for converting triglycerides to diacylglycerol and free fatty acids?
In the process of lipolysis, what enzyme is responsible for converting triglycerides to diacylglycerol and free fatty acids?
What is the primary function of lipoproteins called VLDL in the context of lipolysis?
What is the primary function of lipoproteins called VLDL in the context of lipolysis?
What happens to the excess glucose in the body regarding lipolysis?
What happens to the excess glucose in the body regarding lipolysis?
Where in the mitochondria is the electron transport chain located?
Where in the mitochondria is the electron transport chain located?
Which of the following is the final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain?
Which of the following is the final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain?
What is the function of the H+ gradient created by the electron transport chain?
What is the function of the H+ gradient created by the electron transport chain?
Why does FADH2 generate less ATP compared to NADH in the electron transport chain?
Why does FADH2 generate less ATP compared to NADH in the electron transport chain?
Which enzyme is responsible for generating ATP using the H+ gradient in the electron transport chain?
Which enzyme is responsible for generating ATP using the H+ gradient in the electron transport chain?
How do the ATP molecules generated by ATP synthase move to the cytosol?
How do the ATP molecules generated by ATP synthase move to the cytosol?
What is the function of thermogenin in brown fat cells during non-shivering thermogenesis?
What is the function of thermogenin in brown fat cells during non-shivering thermogenesis?
What is the role of brown fat in babies, hibernating animals, and cold-adapted animals during non-shivering thermogenesis?
What is the role of brown fat in babies, hibernating animals, and cold-adapted animals during non-shivering thermogenesis?
What is the primary function of ATP synthase in the electron transport chain during non-shivering thermogenesis?
What is the primary function of ATP synthase in the electron transport chain during non-shivering thermogenesis?
Which protein allows for the uncoupling of the electron transport chain by translocating H+ back to the matrix in brown fat cells?
Which protein allows for the uncoupling of the electron transport chain by translocating H+ back to the matrix in brown fat cells?
What is the purpose of the Glycerol Phosphate shuttle in the context of energy production?
What is the purpose of the Glycerol Phosphate shuttle in the context of energy production?
What is the ultimate fate of FADH2 produced via the Glycerol Phosphate shuttle?
What is the ultimate fate of FADH2 produced via the Glycerol Phosphate shuttle?
Which compound is involved in the regeneration of NAD+ from NADH in the mitochondrial matrix during glycolysis?
Which compound is involved in the regeneration of NAD+ from NADH in the mitochondrial matrix during glycolysis?
Why does using the Glycerol Phosphate shuttle for NADH transport lead to the generation of one less ATP compared to other shuttles?
Why does using the Glycerol Phosphate shuttle for NADH transport lead to the generation of one less ATP compared to other shuttles?
Which enzyme plays a crucial role in converting dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) to glycerol 3-phosphate during the Glycerol Phosphate shuttle?
Which enzyme plays a crucial role in converting dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) to glycerol 3-phosphate during the Glycerol Phosphate shuttle?
Which statement accurately describes the involvement of FADH2 within the Glycerol Phosphate shuttle system?
Which statement accurately describes the involvement of FADH2 within the Glycerol Phosphate shuttle system?
Which molecule can connect to the Citric Acid Cycle via pyruvate?
Which molecule can connect to the Citric Acid Cycle via pyruvate?
Which amino acid can enter the Citric Acid Cycle via fumarate?
Which amino acid can enter the Citric Acid Cycle via fumarate?
Which amino acid can connect to the Citric Acid Cycle via alpha-ketoglutarate?
Which amino acid can connect to the Citric Acid Cycle via alpha-ketoglutarate?
Which amino acid can feed into the Citric Acid Cycle via oxaloacetate?
Which amino acid can feed into the Citric Acid Cycle via oxaloacetate?
What is the purpose of the two shuttle systems described in the text?
What is the purpose of the two shuttle systems described in the text?
Which organelle poses a barrier for NADH to enter during glycolysis under aerobic conditions?
Which organelle poses a barrier for NADH to enter during glycolysis under aerobic conditions?
Which system converts NADH to FADH2 to allow its entry into the ETC?
Which system converts NADH to FADH2 to allow its entry into the ETC?
Which molecule is used to convert oxaloacetate to malate in the Malate Aspartate shuttle?
Which molecule is used to convert oxaloacetate to malate in the Malate Aspartate shuttle?
What is formed when oxaloacetate is converted back to aspartate in the shuttle system?
What is formed when oxaloacetate is converted back to aspartate in the shuttle system?
In the Malate Aspartate shuttle, what is regenerated when aspartate is converted back to oxaloacetate?
In the Malate Aspartate shuttle, what is regenerated when aspartate is converted back to oxaloacetate?
What is the purpose of a phosphate translocate symporter in the inner mitochondrial membrane?
What is the purpose of a phosphate translocate symporter in the inner mitochondrial membrane?
Why does NADH produced during glycolysis not enter the Electron Transport Chain (ETC) in red blood cells or under anaerobic conditions?
Why does NADH produced during glycolysis not enter the Electron Transport Chain (ETC) in red blood cells or under anaerobic conditions?
What happens to lactate after being converted back to pyruvate in the liver?
What happens to lactate after being converted back to pyruvate in the liver?
Which of the following is NOT a catabolic pathway that produces indirect energy intermediates feeding into the ETC?
Which of the following is NOT a catabolic pathway that produces indirect energy intermediates feeding into the ETC?
What is the role of the Adenine nucleotide translocate antiporter in the inner mitochondrial membrane?
What is the role of the Adenine nucleotide translocate antiporter in the inner mitochondrial membrane?
Why is it important for the NADH produced during glycolysis in red blood cells or under anaerobic conditions to be regenerated into NAD+?
Why is it important for the NADH produced during glycolysis in red blood cells or under anaerobic conditions to be regenerated into NAD+?
Which symptom is commonly associated with astrocytomas due to the 6th cranial nerve palsy?
Which symptom is commonly associated with astrocytomas due to the 6th cranial nerve palsy?
What is a key factor contributing to the worse prognosis of Grade IV astrocytomas?
What is a key factor contributing to the worse prognosis of Grade IV astrocytomas?
Which of the following is NOT considered a sign of increased intracranial pressure related to brain tumors?
Which of the following is NOT considered a sign of increased intracranial pressure related to brain tumors?
What is the median survival for Grade II astrocytomas?
What is the median survival for Grade II astrocytomas?
What is the most common symptom found in astrocytomas due to the worsening of the tumor in the morning?
What is the most common symptom found in astrocytomas due to the worsening of the tumor in the morning?
Where are ependymomas most frequently found in children?
Where are ependymomas most frequently found in children?
What is the typical cellular appearance of oligodendrogliomas?
What is the typical cellular appearance of oligodendrogliomas?
What is a common feature of meningiomas when found in the brain?
What is a common feature of meningiomas when found in the brain?
Which primary brain tumor arises from the ependymal cells of the ventricular system?
Which primary brain tumor arises from the ependymal cells of the ventricular system?
What distinguishes brain metastases from other primary brain tumors?
What distinguishes brain metastases from other primary brain tumors?
What characterizes the growth of meningiomas during pregnancy?
What characterizes the growth of meningiomas during pregnancy?
What is a distinguishing feature of medulloblastomas in terms of location?
What is a distinguishing feature of medulloblastomas in terms of location?
Which of the following is a common sign of meningiomas due to compression of specific brain structures?
Which of the following is a common sign of meningiomas due to compression of specific brain structures?
What tends to differentiate ependymomas in adults from those found in children?
What tends to differentiate ependymomas in adults from those found in children?
Which primary site commonly metastasizes to the brain, leading to brain metastases?
Which primary site commonly metastasizes to the brain, leading to brain metastases?
What percentage of childhood CNS tumors arise in the posterior fossa?
What percentage of childhood CNS tumors arise in the posterior fossa?
Which brain tumors are among the deadliest of cancers due to their aggressiveness and poor differentiation?
Which brain tumors are among the deadliest of cancers due to their aggressiveness and poor differentiation?
What is the most common grade range for astrocytomas?
What is the most common grade range for astrocytomas?
Where do 70% of brain tumors tend to arise in adults, according to the text?
Where do 70% of brain tumors tend to arise in adults, according to the text?
What is the primary source of brain tumors that lead to extensive destruction because of difficulty in isolating them from normal brain tissue?
What is the primary source of brain tumors that lead to extensive destruction because of difficulty in isolating them from normal brain tissue?
What is the approximate rate of intraspinal tumors in the population?
What is the approximate rate of intraspinal tumors in the population?
What is the defining characteristic of major neurocognitive disorders?
What is the defining characteristic of major neurocognitive disorders?
What is a common feature in many neurodegenerative disorders?
What is a common feature in many neurodegenerative disorders?
Which term describes the daily activities used to measure one's ability to live independently?
Which term describes the daily activities used to measure one's ability to live independently?
What distinguishes early mild neurocognitive disorder from major neurocognitive disorder?
What distinguishes early mild neurocognitive disorder from major neurocognitive disorder?
Which neurons are selectively affected in neurodegenerative disorders?
Which neurons are selectively affected in neurodegenerative disorders?
What is a common clinical feature associated with neurocognitive disorders?
What is a common clinical feature associated with neurocognitive disorders?
What is the main function of APP?
What is the main function of APP?
What is the role of Presenilin 1 and presenilin 2 in Alzheimer's disease?
What is the role of Presenilin 1 and presenilin 2 in Alzheimer's disease?
What risk factor for Alzheimer's disease is associated with increased risk primarily in homozygous individuals?
What risk factor for Alzheimer's disease is associated with increased risk primarily in homozygous individuals?
What function does the infectious theory of Alzheimer's disease suggest for APP?
What function does the infectious theory of Alzheimer's disease suggest for APP?
Which genetic factor is suggested to have a more significant causative role in Alzheimer's disease compared to Apolipoprotein E4 positivity?
Which genetic factor is suggested to have a more significant causative role in Alzheimer's disease compared to Apolipoprotein E4 positivity?
What is one of the proposed functions of APP in Alzheimer's disease?
What is one of the proposed functions of APP in Alzheimer's disease?
What distinguishes delusions from normal beliefs?
What distinguishes delusions from normal beliefs?
Which cognitive functions are orchestrated by the prefrontal cortex?
Which cognitive functions are orchestrated by the prefrontal cortex?
What is a common type of hallucination associated with psychosis?
What is a common type of hallucination associated with psychosis?
Which executive function involves selecting and focusing on information relevant to a task?
Which executive function involves selecting and focusing on information relevant to a task?
Which feature characterizes frontotemporal dementias in terms of behavior?
Which feature characterizes frontotemporal dementias in terms of behavior?
What type of dementia is associated with Parkinson's disease and visual hallucinations?
What type of dementia is associated with Parkinson's disease and visual hallucinations?
Which grade of astrocytoma exhibits greater anaplasia?
Which grade of astrocytoma exhibits greater anaplasia?
Which brain region is grade I astrocytoma more commonly found in?
Which brain region is grade I astrocytoma more commonly found in?
What is a typical feature of grade I astrocytoma when compared to other grades?
What is a typical feature of grade I astrocytoma when compared to other grades?
What gene is often excessively activated in grade I astrocytomas?
What gene is often excessively activated in grade I astrocytomas?
Which of the following is a commonly-used name for grade III astrocytomas?
Which of the following is a commonly-used name for grade III astrocytomas?
What cellular morphology is typically seen in grade IV astrocytomas?
What cellular morphology is typically seen in grade IV astrocytomas?
Which skin infections are caused by HHV-6 and HHV-7 in children?
Which skin infections are caused by HHV-6 and HHV-7 in children?
What happens to the insulin resistance patient's receptors due to genetic and lifestyle factors?
What happens to the insulin resistance patient's receptors due to genetic and lifestyle factors?
What role does insulin play in inhibiting lipids in the liver?
What role does insulin play in inhibiting lipids in the liver?
Which of the following is a long-term effect seen in type II diabetics?
Which of the following is a long-term effect seen in type II diabetics?
What is a significant relationship between insulin resistance and Alzheimer's Disease?
What is a significant relationship between insulin resistance and Alzheimer's Disease?
How do HHV 6 and 7 viruses interact with the central nervous system (CNS)?
How do HHV 6 and 7 viruses interact with the central nervous system (CNS)?
What is a distinguishing feature of Grade III astrocytomas compared to Grade II?
What is a distinguishing feature of Grade III astrocytomas compared to Grade II?
Which genetic mutation is associated with excessive signaling through the PI3K pathway in astrocytomas?
Which genetic mutation is associated with excessive signaling through the PI3K pathway in astrocytomas?
How do Grade IV astrocytomas, such as glioblastoma multiforme, differ from Grade II astrocytomas?
How do Grade IV astrocytomas, such as glioblastoma multiforme, differ from Grade II astrocytomas?
What is a hallmark feature of glioblastoma multiforme among adult brain tumors?
What is a hallmark feature of glioblastoma multiforme among adult brain tumors?
Which genetic mutation is more commonly found in Grade IV astrocytomas, contributing to its aggressiveness?
Which genetic mutation is more commonly found in Grade IV astrocytomas, contributing to its aggressiveness?
What is the primary difference in growth pattern between Grade II and Grade III astrocytomas in the brain?
What is the primary difference in growth pattern between Grade II and Grade III astrocytomas in the brain?
Which type of dementia is characterized by a faster decline in comparison to Lewy body dementia?
Which type of dementia is characterized by a faster decline in comparison to Lewy body dementia?
What is a common feature that distinguishes vascular dementia from Alzheimer disease?
What is a common feature that distinguishes vascular dementia from Alzheimer disease?
Which of the following is NOT a common symptom associated with vascular dementia?
Which of the following is NOT a common symptom associated with vascular dementia?
What pathology is characteristic of vascular dementia?
What pathology is characteristic of vascular dementia?
In patients with vascular dementia, what feature distinguishes the progression from Alzheimer disease?
In patients with vascular dementia, what feature distinguishes the progression from Alzheimer disease?
What are the two general types of cells/structures innervated by efferents in the ANS?
What are the two general types of cells/structures innervated by efferents in the ANS?
Where do the parasympathetic motor outputs originate from?
Where do the parasympathetic motor outputs originate from?
What are the two types of ganglia in the ANS transmission?
What are the two types of ganglia in the ANS transmission?
What do preganglionic neurons in the SNS do after entering the sympathetic trunk?
What do preganglionic neurons in the SNS do after entering the sympathetic trunk?
Where do the postsynaptic neurons in the ANS transmission project to?
Where do the postsynaptic neurons in the ANS transmission project to?
Which structure is closer to the spinal cord in the ANS transmission?
Which structure is closer to the spinal cord in the ANS transmission?
Where do the neuronal cell bodies for myelinated preganglionic neurons in the parasympathetic nervous system reside?
Where do the neuronal cell bodies for myelinated preganglionic neurons in the parasympathetic nervous system reside?
In the sympathetic nervous system, where do myelinated preganglionic fibers synapse on ganglia?
In the sympathetic nervous system, where do myelinated preganglionic fibers synapse on ganglia?
Which part of the autonomic nervous system controls voluntary (or reflex) actions in the head/neck region?
Which part of the autonomic nervous system controls voluntary (or reflex) actions in the head/neck region?
Where are the neuronal cell bodies for non-myelinated postganglionic neurons in the parasympathetic nervous system located?
Where are the neuronal cell bodies for non-myelinated postganglionic neurons in the parasympathetic nervous system located?
Where do non-myelinated post-ganglionic fibers originate in the sympathetic nervous system?
Where do non-myelinated post-ganglionic fibers originate in the sympathetic nervous system?
Which type of ganglia are common to the parasympathetic nervous system?
Which type of ganglia are common to the parasympathetic nervous system?
Where do postganglionic fibers exit to join a sympathetic trunk and travel to their target?
Where do postganglionic fibers exit to join a sympathetic trunk and travel to their target?
What type of nerve is formed by the fibers passing through the trunk and synapsing on a ganglion?
What type of nerve is formed by the fibers passing through the trunk and synapsing on a ganglion?
At what spinal levels do preganglionic fibers synapse on paravertebral ganglia for sympathetic innervation to the heart and lungs?
At what spinal levels do preganglionic fibers synapse on paravertebral ganglia for sympathetic innervation to the heart and lungs?
Which splanchnic nerve is correctly matched with its target and ganglion?
Which splanchnic nerve is correctly matched with its target and ganglion?
Which atypical receptor type is activated by NE leading to increased calcium signaling?
Which atypical receptor type is activated by NE leading to increased calcium signaling?
Which signaling molecule is involved in inhibiting Adenylate Cyclase and reducing cAMP levels?
Which signaling molecule is involved in inhibiting Adenylate Cyclase and reducing cAMP levels?
Which paravertebral ganglia are involved in sympathetic innervation to the skin and blood vessels?
Which paravertebral ganglia are involved in sympathetic innervation to the skin and blood vessels?
In which type of shock would activating beta-2 receptors be beneficial?
In which type of shock would activating beta-2 receptors be beneficial?
Which G-protein activates Adenylate Cyclase leading to increased cAMP levels?
Which G-protein activates Adenylate Cyclase leading to increased cAMP levels?
What is the effect of activating Alpha-1 adrenergic receptors?
What is the effect of activating Alpha-1 adrenergic receptors?
Why is EpiPen® primarily carried by people with allergies?
Why is EpiPen® primarily carried by people with allergies?
What is the mechanism of an 'anticholinesterase' drug in increasing ACH responses?
What is the mechanism of an 'anticholinesterase' drug in increasing ACH responses?
Which type of agonist would be most useful in treating anaphylactic shock to counteract vasodilation and bronchoconstriction symptoms?
Which type of agonist would be most useful in treating anaphylactic shock to counteract vasodilation and bronchoconstriction symptoms?
Which of the following is an action of 'anticholinergic' substances?
Which of the following is an action of 'anticholinergic' substances?
To enhance ACH responses, one might use a drug with what mechanism?
To enhance ACH responses, one might use a drug with what mechanism?
Which response is accurate regarding the better treatment choice between NE and E in anaphylactic shock?
Which response is accurate regarding the better treatment choice between NE and E in anaphylactic shock?
Which enzyme is inhibited by anticholinesterase drugs to prevent the degradation of acetylcholine?
Which enzyme is inhibited by anticholinesterase drugs to prevent the degradation of acetylcholine?
Flashcards
Lipolysis
Lipolysis
The process of breaking down triglycerides into free fatty acids and glycerol, occurring primarily in adipose tissue and the liver.
Lipogenesis
Lipogenesis
The synthesis of triglycerides for energy storage, primarily in the liver and adipose tissue.
Beta Oxidation
Beta Oxidation
The breakdown of fatty acids into acetyl-CoA, NADH, and FADH2, occurring in the mitochondrial matrix.
Citric Acid Cycle (CAC)
Citric Acid Cycle (CAC)
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Carnitine
Carnitine
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Thermogenin
Thermogenin
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Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
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Chemiosmosis
Chemiosmosis
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Glycerol Phosphate Shuttle
Glycerol Phosphate Shuttle
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Glycolysis
Glycolysis
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Gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis
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Glucagon
Glucagon
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Insulin
Insulin
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Epinephrine
Epinephrine
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Hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL)
Hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL)
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Astrocytoma
Astrocytoma
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Glioblastoma Multiforme (GBM)
Glioblastoma Multiforme (GBM)
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Frontotemporal Dementia (FTD)
Frontotemporal Dementia (FTD)
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Vascular Dementia
Vascular Dementia
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Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE)
Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE)
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Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
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Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS)
Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS)
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Parasympathetic Nervous System (PaNS)
Parasympathetic Nervous System (PaNS)
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Muscarinic Receptor
Muscarinic Receptor
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Anaphylactic Shock
Anaphylactic Shock
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Alpha 1 Adrenergic Receptor
Alpha 1 Adrenergic Receptor
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M2 Muscarinic Receptor
M2 Muscarinic Receptor
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Acetylcholine
Acetylcholine
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Beta 1 Adrenergic Receptor
Beta 1 Adrenergic Receptor
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Beta 2 Adrenergic Receptor
Beta 2 Adrenergic Receptor
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Alpha 2 Adrenergic Receptor
Alpha 2 Adrenergic Receptor
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M1 Muscarinic Receptor
M1 Muscarinic Receptor
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Study Notes
Lipids Part 3b Prelearning: Beta Oxidation
Fatty Acid Activation
- Activation of a fatty acid to a fatty acyl CoA + CoASH
- Fatty acid + ATP → Fatty acyl CoA + CoA + AMP + PPi
- Uses one ATP molecule, but equivalent of two ATP's worth of energy
- Hydrolysis to AMP and PPi first, then PPi hydrolysis
Carnitine Transport System
- Required for fatty acyl CoA's to enter the mitochondria
- Involves:
- Transferase (cytosol) to transfer fatty acyl from CoA to carnitine carrier
- Translocator to move acyl-carnitine across inner membrane and move free carnitine out
- Transferase (matrix) to transfer fatty acyl from carnitine back to CoA
Beta Oxidation Sequence
- Fatty Acyl CoA → CAC for energy
- Fatty Acyl CoA → 2 carbons shorter Acetyl CoA + FADH2 + NADH
Energy Yield
- Determine number of acetyl CoA by dividing number of carbons by two
- Determine number of cycles by subtracting one from number of acetyl CoA
- Each acetyl CoA yields 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, and 1 GTP (equivalent to 12 ATP)
Citric Acid Cycle
- Also known as Krebs cycle or TCA cycle
- Final common pathway for catabolism/oxidation of glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids
- Produces 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, and 1 ATP (via GTP)
CAC Entry Points
- Glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids can feed into CAC
- Specific entry points for:
- Glucose: Pyruvate → Acetyl CoA
- Fatty acids: Acetyl CoA
- Amino acids: various
Lipids Part 3a Prelearning: Lipolysis
Lipolysis
- Breakdown of TG's to release free fatty acids and glycerol
- Takes place in adipose tissue and liver
- Fatty acids used for energy, glycerol used for gluconeogenesis
Hormone Regulation
- Hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL) regulated by glucagon, insulin, and epinephrine
Lipogenesis
- Storage of fatty acids as TG's in liver and adipose tissue
- Additional purpose of TG's in liver: combine with cholesterol, phospholipids, and proteins to make lipoproteins
Citric Acid Cycle Part 1a Prelearning: Intro to CAC with connections to beta oxidation and glycolysis
CAC Connections
- Glycolysis: pyruvate → acetyl CoA → CAC
- Beta oxidation: fatty acid → acetyl CoA → CAC
- Amino acids: various → acetyl CoA → CAC
CAC Overview
- Energy-producing pathway found in mitochondria
- Produces NADH, FADH2, and ATP (via GTP)
Check Your Knowledge
- Fatty acid activation: requires one ATP
- Carnitine transport system: required for fatty acyl CoA's to enter mitochondria
- Beta oxidation: yields acetyl CoA, NADH, and FADH2
- Citric acid cycle: final common pathway for catabolism/oxidation of glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids
- Lipolysis: breakdown of TG's to release free fatty acids and glycerolHere are the study notes for the text:
- Non-Shivering Thermogenesis*
- Newborn babies, hibernating animals, and cold-adapted animals need to generate more heat than is produced by normal metabolism
- They have lots of brown fat, which is brown due to a large number of mitochondria
- Brown fat contains thermogenin, a protein that uncouples the Electron Transport Chain (ETC) by translocating H+ back to the matrix, producing heat instead of ATP
- Electron Transport Chain (ETC)*
- Located in the mitochondrial inner membrane
- Comprised of four complexes (I, II, III, IV) and two electron carriers (Coenzyme Q and Cytochrome C)
- Produces ATP through chemiosmosis
- Glycerol Phosphate Shuttle*
- A shuttle system that generates 1 less ATP than the malate-aspartate shuttle
- Converts NADH to FADH2 in the intermembrane space
- Citric Acid Cycle (CAC)*
- Also known as the Krebs cycle or tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle
- Occurs in the mitochondrial matrix
- Acetyl-CoA is fed into the cycle, which produces 2 CO2, 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, and 1 GTP
- Amino acids can feed into the CAC through various entry points
- Catabolism of Molecules*
- Three types of molecules that can feed into the CAC:
- Glucose (via pyruvate)
- Fatty acids (via beta-oxidation)
- Amino acids (via various entry points)
- Beta-Oxidation*
- Occurs in the mitochondrial matrix
- Produces FADH2 and NADH, which enter the ETC
- Each round produces 1 acetyl-CoA, 1 FADH2, and 1 NADH
- Communication Between Catabolic Pathways*
- The three catabolic pathways (glycolysis, beta-oxidation, and CAC) produce indirect energy intermediates (NADH and FADH2) that feed into the ETC to generate ATP.
- Astrocytomas*
- A type of brain tumor that can occur in adults and children
- Can be benign or malignant
- Classified into four grades (I-IV), with grade IV being the most aggressive
- Oligodendrogliomas*
- A type of brain tumor that occurs in adults
- Found in the cerebral hemispheres, often in the white matter areas
- Cells resemble normal oligodendrocytes and are often surrounded by a capsule
- Signs and symptoms are typical of slowly increasing intracranial pressure
- Prognosis is generally better than that of astrocytomas
- Ependymomas*
- A type of brain tumor that arises from ependymal cells in the ventricular system
- Frequently block the central canal or are near the 4th ventricle in kids
- Can produce lots of CSF, causing communicating or noncommunicating hydrocephalus
- Prognosis is generally poor
- Meningiomas*
- A type of brain tumor that arises from meningothelial cells
- Attached to the dura, often in the cerebral hemispheres
- Pathological findings include rounded masses with a dural base that compress underlying brain tissue
- Prognosis is generally good
- Medulloblastomas*
- A type of brain tumor that occurs in children and adults
- Rapidly growing and highly anaplastic
- Can metastasize widely, including to the cauda equina
- Can obstruct CSF flow, causing hydrocephalus
- Prognosis is generally good with radiation therapy### Astrocytomas
- Grade II and III astrocytomas are more common in adults and are usually found above the tentorium in the cerebrum, but can also be found in the cerebellum or medulla.
- Grade II astrocytomas have poorly differentiated cells that invade surrounding brain tissue.
- Grade III astrocytomas have similar characteristics to Grade II, but with more mitotic figures and larger cells.
- Mutations associated with astrocytomas include:
- PTEN inactivation, leading to excessive signaling through the PI3K pathway.
- Increased EGF or PDGF receptor activity or expression.
- P16, p14, or p53 inactivation.
- IDH mutations, which produce 2-hydroxyglutarate, a metabolite that dysregulates epigenetic signaling in glial cells, leading to excessive activation of the RAS pathways.
Grade IV Astrocytomas (Glioblastoma Multiforme)
- This is the most common brain tumor in adults and has the worst prognosis.
- Characteristics include:
- Prominent hemorrhage and necrosis.
- Rapid growth.
- Tendency to invade adjacent tissue more than other types.
- Common mutations include p53 and EGFR.
Frontotemporal Dementia (FTD)
- FTDs involve progressive inability to form words or use language.
- Characteristics include:
- Constant, non-fluctuating course with rapid decline.
- More common in younger patients.
- Frequency decreases with age, while AD becomes more common.
Vascular Dementia
- Caused by multiple small infarcts (often affecting gray matter of the cortices) or hypertension (often affecting white matter).
- Common cause of dementia, second only to Alzheimer disease.
- Clinical presentation varies based on pattern of injury.
- Characteristics include:
- Depression and psychosis can be prominent features.
- Agitation can be dangerous to both the patient and the caregiver.
- Lack of motivation is common.
- Gait abnormalities are common, including gait apraxia.
- Lateralizing signs, such as increased tone/reflexes, often present.
- Progresses in a step-wise fashion, corresponding to discrete vascular insults.
MMSE (Mini-Mental State Examination)
- Assesses:
- Orientation.
- Short, recent, and remote memory.
- Sustained concentration.
- Executive functions.
- Recognition.
- Registration.
- Sequencing and organization.
- Comprehension.
- Perceptual-motor skills.
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
- Innervates:
- Smooth muscle.
- Cardiac cells.
- Glands.
- Divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
- SNS:
- Myelinated pre-ganglionic fibers are shorter.
- Neuronal cell bodies are located in T1-L2 spinal levels.
- Synapse on ganglia inside or outside of the sympathetic trunk.
- Ganglia are paravertebral or prevertebral.
- Non-myelinated post-ganglionic fibers are longer.
- PaNS:
- Myelinated pre-ganglionic fibers are longer.
- Neuronal cell bodies are located in brainstem or sacral spinal levels.
- Synapse on ganglia outside of the sympathetic trunk.
- Ganglia are terminal or near the target.
- Non-myelinated post-ganglionic fibers are shorter.
Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS)
- Innervates:
- Heart.
- Lungs.
- Skin.
- Blood vessels.
- Preganglionic fibers synapse on paravertebral ganglia at different spinal levels.
- Paravertebral ganglia involved include:
- Superior cervical.
- Middle cervical.
- Inferior cervical/stellate.
Receptors and Neurotransmitters
- Nicotinic receptor: acetylcholine, N/A, ionotropic receptor, sodium channel opening.
- α1 adrenergic receptor: NE, Gq, activates PLC, IP3, DAG, increased calcium.
- α2 adrenergic receptor: NE, Gi, inhibits AC, decreased cAMP.
- β1 adrenergic receptor: E, Gs, stimulates AC, increased cAMP.
- β2 adrenergic receptor: E, Gs, stimulates AC, increased cAMP.
- M1 muscarinic receptor: acetylcholine, Gq, activates PLC, IP3, DAG, increased calcium.
- M2 muscarinic receptor: acetylcholine, Gi, inhibits AC, decreased cAMP.
Anaphylactic Shock
- Treatment involves:
- Alpha 1 agonist to counteract vasodilation.
- Beta 2 agonist to alleviate bronchoconstriction.
- Best choice is an alpha 1 and beta 2 agonist, such as epinephrine (E).
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Description
Test your knowledge on beta oxidation by identifying enzymes for saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, calculating the ATP production difference for each double bond, and understanding the process for odd-numbered fatty acids. Learn about key steps and energy production in beta oxidation.
