Behavioral Neuroscience - PSYC 211 MID 1
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Questions and Answers

What is implied about consciousness in relation to subjective experience?

  • Consciousness exclusively refers to the awareness of one’s own feelings.
  • The existence of consciousness is universally recognized across all entities.
  • Consciousness is defined as the state of awareness of thoughts and perceptions. (correct)
  • All living beings possess the same level of consciousness.

What does the concept of free will suggest in relation to consciousness?

  • Free will is universally accepted as a proven fact.
  • Free will can be completely understood through scientific measurement.
  • Free will remains a debated topic with no definitive answers. (correct)
  • Individuals have complete control over their conscious decisions.

How can brain damage influence a person's consciousness?

  • It may disrupt their conscious awareness without their recognition. (correct)
  • Brain damage does not affect consciousness at all.
  • It can enhance their conscious awareness of surroundings.
  • It can lead to a complete loss of consciousness.

What was a consequence of the frontal lobotomy during the 1940s and 50s?

<p>It led to a Nobel Prize for its inventors in 1949. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential limitation of defining consciousness?

<p>It cannot be empirically measured in scientific studies. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is suggested by the notion of 'what it is like to be'?

<p>Consciousness may vary greatly across different entities. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did lobotomy procedures evolve by the 1950s?

<p>They became increasingly popular, with thousands performed. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What research method is proposed to study consciousness?

<p>Interview individuals with brain damage about their perception of the world. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason for the decline in popularity of the split-brain operation in the mid 1950s?

<p>Development of partially effective antipsychotic medications (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of the corpus callosum in the brain?

<p>To connect and facilitate communication between the two cerebral hemispheres (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does damage to the left cerebral hemisphere affect the body?

<p>It disrupts movements and sensory processing on the right side of the body (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of vision, how do the left and right hemispheres process visual information?

<p>The right hemisphere processes everything seen to the left of a fixation point (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was a significant effect of severing the corpus callosum?

<p>Loss of direct communication between the two hemispheres (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was a notable characteristic of the patients undergoing split-brain surgery in Rochester NY around 1940?

<p>They were part of a groundbreaking surgical trial (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a side effect of the split-brain operation?

<p>Coordination problems between the body and conscious thought (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What capability remains intact even when the corpus callosum is severed?

<p>Coordination of movements through lower brain areas (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon did split-brain patients experience with their left hand post-surgery?

<p>The left hand sometimes acted against their conscious intentions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did Vicki struggle with after her surgery while grocery shopping?

<p>Conflict between her two hands while reaching for items. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What conclusion was drawn about the effect of cutting the corpus callosum on cognitive functions?

<p>It caused no substantial changes to cognitive functioning. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is suggested about the location of consciousness based on the behavior of split-brain patients?

<p>Consciousness appears to be located in the left hemisphere. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was a common outcome reported by patients after undergoing the split-brain surgery?

<p>They reported feeling no different from before the surgery. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect of split-brain patients' experiences highlights the debate between determinism and free will?

<p>Their left hand sometimes acted against their conscious choices. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What kind of tests were conducted on the patients after their surgeries?

<p>Neurological and psychological tests including IQ and memory. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did the findings of Roger Sperry's research influence perceptions of the corpus callosum's role?

<p>It confirmed the corpus callosum's importance in cognitive functions. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do ribosomes play in protein synthesis?

<p>They synthesize proteins by linking amino acids together. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason cells evolved to utilize DNA instead of RNA for long-term information storage?

<p>DNA is more stable and durable than RNA. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do ribosomes determine the sequence of amino acids during protein synthesis?

<p>By stringing together amino acids held by complementary tRNA based on the mRNA sequence. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are phospholipids primarily composed of?

<p>Fatty acids and a phosphate group. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which process is correctly paired with its description?

<p>Transcription - RNA is synthesized from DNA. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the small subunit of the ribosome do during protein synthesis?

<p>It binds to free-floating mRNA strands. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is RNA considered unsuitable for long-term information storage?

<p>It breaks apart too easily. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the correct order of events in the process of protein synthesis?

<p>DNA → mRNA → Protein. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of a cell's total mass is made up of carbohydrates?

<p>15% (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of molecule is responsible for forming cell membranes and vesicles in cells?

<p>Lipids (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of ribozymes in the context of early life?

<p>To catalyze chemical reactions (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key limitation of RNA compared to amino acids in cellular functions?

<p>RNA is fragile and breaks apart easily (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a component of the molecular composition of cells?

<p>Minerals (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of nucleic acid is specifically known as ribonucleic acid?

<p>RNA (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of cell mass is primarily composed of amino acids and proteins?

<p>50% (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following organic molecules is considered to be less abundant on Earth, making ribozymes impractical for cellular functions?

<p>Nucleotides (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What primarily fills the cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells?

<p>Saltwater with sugar, nucleic acids, and amino acids (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which component is unique to eukaryotic cells compared to prokaryotic cells?

<p>Mitochondria (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of ribosomes in prokaryotic cells?

<p>To interlink amino acids into proteins (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which structure is essential for safely containing the cell's DNA in eukaryotic cells?

<p>Nucleus (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of the genome in a cell?

<p>To provide information for synthesizing proteins (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

When a gene is expressed, what process takes place first?

<p>Transcription into RNA (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What do mitochondria do within eukaryotic cells?

<p>Generate molecules of ATP (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic structure of the cell membrane in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

<p>Phospholipid bilayer (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason for the negativity of the resting membrane potential in neurons?

<p>Potassium leak channels allowing potassium to exit (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following ions is more abundant inside the cells as compared to the extracellular space?

<p>Potassium (K+) (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which ion channel allows specific ions to flow freely in and out of the cell and is typically bidirectional?

<p>Leak channel (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the importance of electrostatic pressure in ion movement across the cell membrane?

<p>It attracts oppositely charged ions towards each other (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of ions are typically found in higher concentrations outside of neurons compared to inside?

<p>Cations (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which component of the cell membrane structure primarily contributes to its selective permeability?

<p>Phospholipid bilayer (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What defines a cation compared to an anion?

<p>Cations are positively charged, anions are negatively charged (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the typical range of resting membrane potential in neurons?

<p>-40 to -90 mV (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of dendrites in a neuron?

<p>To collect information relevant to the cell. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes an axon?

<p>An axon can branch into axon collaterals. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the resting membrane potential in neurons?

<p>It allows for the generation of action potentials. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is required for ions to cross the cell membrane?

<p>The presence of ion channels or a concentration gradient. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What do voltmeters measure in the context of neurons?

<p>The difference in electric charge between two points. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What determines the flow of ions in response to a voltage difference?

<p>The cell membrane's permeability. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes the structure of the cell membrane?

<p>It is selectively permeable to various ions and molecules. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens at the synapse?

<p>Neurotransmitters are released from the axon terminal. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What primarily contributes to the negative charges found inside a cell?

<p>Nucleic acids and amino acids (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which ion is primarily associated with intracellular fluid and contributes to the membrane potential?

<p>Potassium ions (K+) (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the typical membrane potential range for neurons?

<p>-40 mV to -80 mV (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do negative ions behave in relation to the cell membrane due to the charge difference?

<p>They want to leave the cell. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements best describes the resting membrane potential?

<p>It varies depending on the type of cell. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why do intracellular Cl- ions tend to hug the cell membrane?

<p>As a result of a greater number of negative charges inside the cell. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What primarily drives positive ions to enter the cell?

<p>Diffusion along the concentration gradient. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which ions are predominately dissolved both inside and outside of cells?

<p>Na+ and Cl- (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary effect of presynaptic inhibition on neurotransmitter release?

<p>It hyperpolarizes the axon terminal, reducing release. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of receptor is always metabotropic and inhibitory?

<p>Autoreceptor (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During presynaptic facilitation, what happens to the voltage-gated calcium channels at the axon terminal?

<p>They open more readily, enhancing neurotransmitter release. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which category do classical neurotransmitters like dopamine and serotonin fall under?

<p>Conventional neurotransmitters (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes an autoreceptor from a postsynaptic receptor?

<p>Autoreceptors are located on the presynaptic membrane. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the release of neurotransmitters differ when dopamine acts as a neurotransmitter versus a hormone?

<p>As a neurotransmitter, it targets local neurons; as a hormone, it targets distant organs. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In which way do lipid-based neurotransmitters primarily function?

<p>They function mainly as endocannabinoids. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement correctly describes the role of axoaxonic synapses in neurotransmitter modulation?

<p>They can either facilitate or inhibit neurotransmitter release. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of receptors do the majority of neuromodulators use to mediate their effects?

<p>G-protein coupled receptors (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary effect of glutamate on neurons?

<p>Excitation of neurons (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do drugs that block GABA receptors typically affect neuronal activity?

<p>They often lead to seizures (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following neurotransmitters is classified as a neuromodulator?

<p>Norepinephrine (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which characteristic is NOT typical of classical neurotransmitters?

<p>They are mainly released from small collections of neurons (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What denotes the primary role of ionotropic glutamate receptors in neuronal signaling?

<p>They facilitate excitatory post-synaptic currents (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main consequence of drugs that activate GABA receptors?

<p>Prolonged inhibition and sedation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In terms of synaptic modulation, how do excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters differ?

<p>Excitatory neurotransmitters cause depolarization, while inhibitory cause hyperpolarization (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of receptor do neuropeptides exclusively bind to?

<p>Metabotropic receptors (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How are neurotransmitters released from axon terminals?

<p>From synaptic vesicles near the site of Ca2+ entry (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which characteristics are used in the classification of neurotransmitters?

<p>Molecule type, release mechanism, and receptor binding (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main feature of lipid-based signaling molecules regarding their release?

<p>They are synthesized and released only after a signal. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a distinguishing feature of the receptors for lipid-based signaling molecules?

<p>They only interact with metabotropic receptors. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do neuropeptides differ from traditional neurotransmitters in their release?

<p>They are not recycled after their release. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to neurotransmitters after they have been released into the synapse?

<p>They are recaptured and used again. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant characteristic of the vesicles that neurotransmitters are packaged in?

<p>They have a specific docking site near calcium entry points. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary action of direct dopamine receptor antagonists in treating psychosis?

<p>They directly block dopamine D2 receptors. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do indirect agonists affect postsynaptic receptors?

<p>They enhance the activity of receptors without direct binding. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which receptor is primarily activated by the hallucinogens mentioned?

<p>Serotonin 5HT-2A receptor (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic is common among the drugs listed as serotonin receptor agonists?

<p>They all cause perceptual distortions. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant feature of antipsychotic drugs categorized as 'dirty'?

<p>They bind to multiple receptor types. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which neurotransmitter is primarily involved in regulating the effects of psychostimulants?

<p>Dopamine (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What common neurotransmitter do recreational drugs often target to produce hallucinations?

<p>Serotonin (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the mechanism of action for neostigmine in relation to neurotransmitters?

<p>It increases acetylcholine availability in the synapse. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the vesicular monoamine transporter in neurons?

<p>It packages monoamines into synaptic vesicles. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes an agonist's action regarding neurotransmitter release?

<p>Blocks neurotransmitter reuptake transporters. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What common mechanism do drugs like cocaine and methylphenidate share?

<p>They block catecholamine reuptake transporters. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of black widow spider venom in relation to neurotransmitter release?

<p>It activates the vesicular release machinery. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary mechanism through which drugs that reverse catecholamine reuptake transporters work?

<p>They facilitate neurotransmitter flow out of the axon terminal. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following accurately differentiates the effect of agonists and antagonists?

<p>Agonists promote synaptic vesicle fusion, while antagonists prevent it. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does ecstasy (MDMA) have on neurotransmitter transporters?

<p>It causes transporters to run backwards. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which neurotransmitter is primarily affected by drugs like methylphenidate and cocaine?

<p>Norepinephrine (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect do drugs like Adderall and ecstasy have on neurotransmitter reuptake transporters?

<p>They reverse the action of neurotransmitter reuptake transporters. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason heroin crosses the blood-brain barrier more easily than morphine?

<p>Heroin is more lipid soluble than morphine. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the consequence of drug tolerance in users?

<p>Users require larger amounts of the drug to achieve the same effect. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements accurately describes the effect of repeated administration of opioids?

<p>It often leads to withdrawal symptoms opposite to the drug's effects. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of drugs primarily function as reuptake blockers?

<p>Antidepressants including SSRIs. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effects do psychostimulant drugs like crystal meth have on neurotransmitter release?

<p>They induce action potential-independent, non-vesicular release of neurotransmitters. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which receptor type is primarily associated with the effects of opioids like morphine and heroin?

<p>Inhibitory metabotropic receptors. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What physiological effect do drugs categorized as 'downers' often have on the body?

<p>They generally promote relaxation and sedation. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes excitotoxic brain lesions produced by glutamate receptor agonists?

<p>They primarily affect the neurons intended for lesioning. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which method is used to achieve reversible lesions in neural activity?

<p>Applying voltage-gated sodium channel blockers. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of microelectrodes in neural recording?

<p>To record the electrical activity of individual neurons. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of recordings are characterized by being made during surgery when the animal is anesthetized?

<p>Acute recordings. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How are chronic electrical recordings distinguished from acute recordings?

<p>Chronic recordings involve long-term observation, while acute are short-term. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the outcome of excessive calcium influx in neurons during excitotoxicity?

<p>Induction of apoptosis in affected neurons. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes a sham lesion?

<p>A placebo procedure without brain damage. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the potential downside of using current to create brain lesions?

<p>Nearby axons not involved in the lesion may be damaged. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What primary function does the basal ganglia serve in the brain?

<p>Controlling voluntary movements (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which area of the brain is primarily involved in forming explicit memories?

<p>Hippocampus (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does the limbic system play in the human brain?

<p>Managing emotions and memory formation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one consequence of dysfunction in the basal ganglia?

<p>Loss of coordination in movement (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements is true regarding CSF flow?

<p>CSF flows over immune system cells before returning to the bloodstream (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Where are the basal ganglia located in relation to the cerebral cortex?

<p>Beneath the cerebral cortex (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What primary areas constitute the cerebral cortex?

<p>Frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which neuroanatomical structures are primarily responsible for interconnecting the hippocampus and amygdala?

<p>Thalamus and hypothalamus (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary outcome of asymmetrical cell division in neural progenitor cells?

<p>One daughter cell becomes a neuron while the other becomes a glia cell. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

At what stage of development does apoptosis in neural progenitor cells predominantly occur?

<p>Around the fifth month of development. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes neurogenesis in humans?

<p>It largely stops five months after conception. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What imaging technique is generally used to determine the specific functions of damaged brain areas?

<p>Functional MRI scans alongside patient history. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the major difference between symmetrical and asymmetrical cell division in neural progenitor cells?

<p>Symmetrical division produces two identical daughter cells, while asymmetrical division results in one identical and one differentiated cell. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a consequence of significant brain injury?

<p>The unaffected areas of the brain will adapt to take over missing functions. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What triggers the beginning of asymmetrical cell division in neural progenitor cells?

<p>The eighth week of development. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What primarily happens to the neurons produced during neurogenesis before birth?

<p>Some undergo apoptosis if they cannot find a place in the network. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Consciousness

State or quality of awareness, including thoughts, perceptions, memories, and feelings, creating a subjective experience.

Subjective Experience

Unique, personal awareness of one's thoughts, perceptions, feelings, and the world.

Free Will

The ability to make choices that are not predetermined.

Brain Damage & Consciousness

Significant brain damage can disrupt a person's conscious awareness of their surroundings and their body without them even noticing.

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Lobotomy

Surgical procedure performed in the 1940s-50s to sever connections in the frontal lobe, used to treat various mental conditions.

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Neurological Disorder

Condition affecting the nervous system, encompassing a wide range of illnesses.

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Neurotransmitters & Drugs

Focuses on substances in the nervous system that communicate between neurons, and how various drugs interact with these processes.

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Methods for studying consciousness

Approaches such as examining the subjective experiences of individuals with brain damage to understand their conscious awareness.

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Split-brain operation

Surgical procedure that cuts the corpus callosum to treat severe epilepsy.

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Corpus Callosum

Bundle of nerve fibers connecting left and right brain hemispheres.

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Cerebral Hemispheres

Two halves of the brain (left & right) responsible for sensory processing and movement.

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Left Brain

Hemisphere primarily responsible for right side body functions and language.

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Right Brain

Hemisphere primarily controlling left side body functions.

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Vision and the brain

Left visual field processed by right brain, right visual field by left brain.

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Epilepsy

A neurological disorder characterized by seizures.

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Antipsychotic medications

Medicines used to treat mental health conditions such as psychosis.

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Split-brain surgery

A surgical procedure that severs the corpus callosum, a bundle of nerve fibers connecting the left and right hemispheres of the brain.

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Left-hand actions (split-brain patients)

Sometimes, the left hand of split-brain patients acts independently of the conscious will, often against the person's intent.

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Right-hand actions

The right hand, controlled by the left brain, acts consistently with the person's conscious intentions.

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Short-lived/Exaggerated Improvements

Initial improvements seen in patients after split-brain surgery were often temporary or overestimated.

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Split-Brain Patient Experience

Split-brain patients often report feeling normal immediately after surgery, with reduced seizures.

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Right Hemisphere Control (Split-brain)

The right hemisphere of the brain controls the left hand and can function independently of conscious awareness.

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Consciousness Location

The question of whether consciousness is primarily located in the left cerebral hemisphere is still debated.

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Ribosome

A molecular machine made of RNA and proteins that synthesizes new proteins by linking together amino acids in a specific order.

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tRNA

A type of RNA molecule that carries a specific amino acid and matches it to a corresponding codon on mRNA during protein synthesis.

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mRNA

A type of RNA molecule that carries the genetic code from DNA to the ribosome, determining the sequence of amino acids in a protein.

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Protein Synthesis

The process of creating new proteins by linking amino acids together in a specific order, based on the genetic code.

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Why is DNA important?

DNA acts as a stable, long-term storage for genetic information. It's transcribed into RNA, which is then translated into proteins.

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Phospholipid

A molecule with a phosphate head and a lipid tail. It forms the basis of cell membranes.

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Cell Membrane

A thin, flexible barrier that surrounds cells, controlling what enters and exits.

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Genetic Code

The set of rules that determines how the sequence of nucleotides in DNA and RNA codes for the sequence of amino acids in a protein.

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Phospholipid Bilayer

A double layer of phospholipids that forms the basis of cell membranes. The hydrophilic heads face the watery environment, while the hydrophobic tails point inwards, creating a barrier.

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Micelle

A spherical structure formed by phospholipids in water. The hydrophobic tails are grouped inwards, while the hydrophilic heads face the water.

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Prokaryotic Cell

A simple cell lacking a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. It has a cell membrane, cytoplasm, DNA, and ribosomes.

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Cytoplasm

The jelly-like substance that fills the cell, composed of water, sugars, nucleic acids, and amino acids.

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Eukaryotic Cell

A complex cell with a nucleus, membrane-bound organelles like mitochondria, and a more organized structure.

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Mitochondria

Organelles that produce ATP (energy) by breaking down nutrients, particularly sugars.

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Macromolecules

Large molecules built from chains of smaller units called monomers. These chains are often called polymers. Examples include carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.

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Carbohydrates

Chains of sugar molecules. They are a major source of energy for cells and are also used for structural support.

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Lipids (Fats)

Molecules that are mostly made of carbon and hydrogen. They are important for storing energy, forming cell membranes, and insulating the body.

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Nucleic Acids

Chains of nucleotides. They carry genetic information and are involved in protein synthesis. DNA and RNA are examples of nucleic acids.

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Proteins

Chains of amino acids. They perform a wide variety of functions in the cell, from building structures to catalyzing reactions and transporting molecules.

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Why did ribozymes become less important?

RNA is fragile and breaks apart easily. Also, the building blocks of RNA (nucleotides) are not as abundant as amino acids, making DNA and proteins better options for life's chemical reactions.

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What does the abundance of amino acids and their diversity tell us?

The abundance and diversity of amino acids make them more practical for building the proteins that cells need to grow and divide effectively. This is why proteins eventually took over the role of catalysts and other functions that ribozymes once performed.

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Resting Membrane Potential

The electrical charge difference across the cell membrane when a neuron is not actively signaling.

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Extracellular Fluid

The fluid that surrounds the outside of a neuron, typically considered to have a charge of 0 mV.

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What makes ions want to move across the membrane?

The difference in electrical charge between the inside and outside of the neuron creates an electrostatic pressure that drives ions to move towards the opposite charge.

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Ion Channel

A protein embedded in the cell membrane that forms a pore allowing specific ions to pass through.

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Leak Channel

An ion channel that is always open, allowing specific ions to constantly flow across the membrane.

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Potassium (K+)

A positively charged ion that is more concentrated inside the neuron than outside.

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Sodium (Na+)

A positively charged ion that is more concentrated outside the neuron than inside.

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Golgi Stain

A technique using silver chromate to visualize neurons. It stains only a small percentage (2%) of neurons, making them appear black.

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Dendrites

Branched extensions of the soma that receive information from other neurons.

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Axon

A single long extension of the soma that sends information to other neurons.

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Axon Terminal

The end of an axon where neurotransmitters are released to communicate with other neurons.

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Synapse

The junction between an axon terminal and another neuron.

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Voltage

The difference in electrical charge between two points, measured with a voltmeter.

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What's the resting membrane potential of a neuron?

The electrical charge difference across the neuron's membrane when it's not transmitting signals. It's typically between -40 mV and -80 mV.

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Why is intracellular fluid more negative?

The intracellular fluid has a higher concentration of negatively charged molecules (like nucleic acids and amino acids) compared to the extracellular fluid.

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What drives ions across the cell membrane?

The difference in electrical charge (membrane potential) creates a force that pushes ions from areas of high concentration to low concentration.

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Membrane potential of neurons

Neurons have a resting membrane potential between -40 mV and -80 mV, which is more negative than most other cells. This is essential for their role in transmitting signals.

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What makes cells have a membrane potential?

The uneven distribution of ions across the cell membrane creates an electrical charge difference. This difference is called the membrane potential.

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Why is the membrane potential important?

The membrane potential is essential for neurons to generate and transmit signals. It allows nerve impulses to travel along the neuron and communicate with other cells.

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Presynaptic Inhibition

A process where a neuron reduces the release of neurotransmitters from another neuron (the downstream neuron) by hyperpolarizing its axon terminal, making it less likely to release neurotransmitters.

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Presynaptic Facilitation

A process where a neuron increases the release of neurotransmitters from another neuron (the downstream neuron) by depolarizing its axon terminal, making it more likely to release neurotransmitters.

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What is an Autoreceptor?

A receptor located on the presynaptic membrane of a neuron that is sensitive to its own neurotransmitter release.

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Postsynaptic Receptor

A receptor located on the receiving neuron (postsynaptic neuron) that binds to the neurotransmitter released from the presynaptic neuron.

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How do Autoreceptors work?

Autoreceptors are always metabotropic and inhibitory. They receive the neuron's own neurotransmitter and signal the presynaptic neuron to stop releasing more neurotransmitter.

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What is a Neurotransmitter?

A chemical messenger released by a neuron that transmits signals across a synapse to another neuron or target cell.

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What is a Hormone?

A chemical messenger released by a gland or cell that travels through the bloodstream to affect distant target cells.

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What are the 4 main types of neurotransmitters?

  1. Classical, conventional neurotransmitters
  2. Neuropeptides
  3. Lipid-based neurotransmitters
  4. Gaseous neurotransmitters
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Glutamate

A neurotransmitter that is typically excitatory, meaning it increases the likelihood of a neuron firing. It works by opening ion channels that let in sodium ions, causing the neuron's membrane potential to become more positive.

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Neuromodulator

A chemical messenger that can diffuse short distances outside of a synapse and influence the activity of neighboring neurons. They often work through G-protein coupled receptors, which are slower-acting than ion channels and don't always cause immediate EPSPs or IPSPs.

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Dopamine

A neuromodulator involved in reward, motivation, and movement. It is released from small groups of neurons that send their axons widely.

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Serotonin

A neuromodulator involved in mood, sleep, and appetite. It is released from small groups of neurons that send their axons widely.

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Norepinephrine

A neuromodulator involved in alertness, arousal, and attention. It is also known as noradrenaline and is released from small groups of neurons that send their axons widely.

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Acetylcholine

A neuromodulator involved in learning, memory, and muscle contraction. It is released from small groups of neurons that send their axons widely.

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Conventional Neurotransmitters

These are small molecules, often modified amino acids, that act rapidly at synapses. The major players include glutamate, GABA, dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, and acetylcholine.

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Neurotransmitter

A chemical messenger that transmits signals between neurons at synapses.

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Small-molecule Neurotransmitter

A neurotransmitter that is a small molecule, often a modified amino acid, synthesized in the axon terminal.

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Neuropeptide

A neurotransmitter made of a short chain of amino acids, synthesized in the cell body and transported down the axon.

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Lipid-based Signaling Molecule

Neurotransmitter made of fat-soluble molecules, synthesized and released on demand, signals backward from postsynaptic membrane.

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Ionotropic Receptor

A neurotransmitter receptor that directly opens an ion channel, allowing ions to flow into or out of the cell.

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Metabotropic Receptor

A neurotransmitter receptor that indirectly triggers a chain of chemical reactions within the cell, leading to changes in its function.

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Neurotransmitter Reuptake

The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron after release.

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Synaptic Diffusion

The movement of neurotransmitters away from the synapse, potentially affecting other neurons.

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What is a drug?

An exogenous chemical that significantly alters the function of certain cells at low doses.

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Tolerance

A decrease in drug effect with repeated administration. The body becomes accustomed to the drug's presence and counteracts its effects.

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Withdrawal

Symptoms opposite the effects of the drug experienced when it's stopped after tolerance develops.

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Opioid Receptors

Three main types (µ, δ, κ) that are inhibitory, found throughout the body and brain, and activated by endogenous opioid peptides.

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Blood-Brain Barrier

A protective barrier that prevents many substances from entering the brain. Only lipid-soluble (fat-soluble) substances can easily cross.

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Heroin vs. Morphine

Heroin crosses the blood-brain barrier more easily than morphine because an enzyme in the blood makes it more lipid-soluble.

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Adderall & Crystal Meth

These drugs cause dopamine and norepinephrine to flow out of the axon terminal before being packaged into a vesicle.

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Ecstasy (MDMA)

Causes all monoamine reuptake transporters to run backwards, leading to increased levels of serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine.

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Receptor Agonist

A drug that increases the activity of postsynaptic receptor proteins.

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Receptor Antagonist

A drug that decreases the activity of postsynaptic receptor proteins.

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Direct Agonist/Antagonist

Drugs that bind directly to postsynaptic receptors and either activate or inhibit them.

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Indirect Agonist/Antagonist

Drugs that affect the activity of postsynaptic receptors without directly binding to them.

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Dopamine Receptor Blockers

Drugs that directly block dopamine D2 receptors, often used to treat psychosis.

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Serotonin 2A Receptor Agonists

Drugs that directly activate serotonin 2A receptors, some of which cause hallucinations.

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Hallucinogens and 5HT-2A Receptors

Hallucinogens like mescaline, psilocybin, and LSD activate serotonin 2A receptors, which are metabotropic.

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Vesicular Monoamine Transporter

A protein that packages monoamines (serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine) into synaptic vesicles for release.

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Botox

An antagonist that blocks the machinery responsible for releasing neurotransmitters from vesicles.

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Black Widow Spider Venom

An agonist that activates the machinery for neurotransmitter release from vesicles, causing excessive release.

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Neostigmine

An agonist that blocks the enzymatic deactivation of neurotransmitters in the synapse, prolonging their effect.

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Methylphenidate & Cocaine

Drugs that block the reuptake of dopamine and norepinephrine, increasing their concentration in the synapse.

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Amygdala's Role

The amygdala is a brain structure crucial for processing emotions, particularly fear.

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Neural Progenitor Cells

These are the early cells in the developing brain that give rise to neurons and glia.

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Symmetrical vs. Asymmetrical Cell Division

Symmetrical division creates two identical progenitor cells, while asymmetrical division creates one progenitor cell and one neuron or glia cell.

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Apoptosis

Programmed cell death that eliminates unnecessary or damaged cells.

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Neurogenesis

The process of creating new neurons.

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How to Study Brain Areas

To understand a brain area's function, study people with damage to that specific area.

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Brain Damage & Function

Analyzing the effects of brain damage helps us understand how different brain areas contribute to specific functions.

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Brain Imaging

Doctors use brain imaging techniques (like MRI or CT scans) to take pictures of the brain to diagnose problems, including damage.

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Excitotoxic Lesion

A brain lesion caused by injecting a glutamate receptor agonist like kainic acid. This overstimulates neurons, causing them to die through apoptosis, while sparing passing axons.

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Sham Lesion

A 'placebo' procedure simulating all brain lesion steps except for the damaging step. It helps control for effects of surgery itself on behavior.

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Reversible Lesion

A temporary brain 'lesion' achieved by injecting drugs that block or reduce neural activity in a specific area.

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Microelectrode

Thin metal wire with a fine tip used to record electrical activity of individual neurons.

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Chronic Recordings

Neural activity recordings made over an extended period of time, allowing for observation of brain activity changes.

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Acute Recordings

Neural activity recordings made over a short period, often during surgery when the animal is anesthetized.

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Manipulating Neural Activity

Studying how the activity of specific receptors or cell populations influences behavior. Often involves using drugs or techniques to alter neural activity.

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Voltage-gated Sodium Channel Blockers

Drugs that block the flow of sodium ions through voltage-gated channels, effectively stopping action potentials.

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Ventricular System

A network of cavities filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) within the brain. It cushions the brain, protects it from damage, and helps remove waste products.

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Cerebral Cortex

The outermost layer of the brain responsible for higher-level functions like language, memory, and reasoning. It is divided into four lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital.

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Basal Ganglia

A group of brain structures located deep within the forebrain. They are involved in the control of movement, reward processing, and habits.

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Limbic System

A group of brain structures involved in processing emotions, memory, and motivation. Key components include the hippocampus, amygdala, and cingulate cortex.

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Hippocampus

A brain structure located in the temporal lobe. It plays a critical role in the formation of new memories, particularly long-term memories.

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Amygdala

A brain structure located in the temporal lobe. It plays a key role in processing emotions, particularly fear and anxiety.

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Cingulate Cortex

A brain region located above the corpus callosum. It plays a role in attention, emotion, and decision-making.

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Study Notes

Introduction to Behavioral Neuroscience - PSYC 211

  • Course is an introduction to how the brain works
  • Covers well-understood topics like brain structure, neural activity.
  • Discusses less-understood topics, including emotions, mental illness, language, learning, hunger, sleep, and sex differences.
  • Professor: Jonathan Britt
  • Office hours: Thursdays 10-11am (starting Sept 19)
  • Location: Stewart Biology room N8/9
  • Contact TA for questions/concerns: [email protected]

Course Structure

  • 10% homework quizzes (on MyCourses, submissions until December 9th, highest score kept)
  • 25% midterm 1 (Monday, September 30th, 4:05-5:25 PM, lectures 1-8)
  • 25% midterm 2 (Monday, November 11th, 4:05-5:25 PM, lectures 9-17)
  • 40% final exam (date in December, cumulative, emphasis on post-midterm 2 material)
  • Extra credit opportunities (up to 2%) available through the psychology department study participant program

Prerequisites

  • Introductory psychology (PSYC 100) or equivalent
  • Introductory biology (BIOL 111, 112, 115) or equivalent (recommended, but not critical)

Textbook

  • Recommended: Discovering Behavioral Neuroscience 5th edition
  • Access through MyCourses ($75)
  • Textbook is helpful, but not required for passing the class.
  • Exam questions are based on lectures.

Teaching Assistants

  • Madeleine Morris, In-Hyun Baek, Naima Mansuri, Caitlyn Antal, Caroline Rajda
  • Provide review conferences, answer emails, address questions on MyCourses Discussion Board, and provide one-on-one/small group meetings
  • Contact: [email protected]

Additional Information

  • TA-led review conferences: Dates, days, location, and topics are listed in attached materials (see page 9)
  • Today's Topic - Consciousness: The session's objectives were to define consciousness, explore research methods, discuss results, and highlight a take-home point (see page 10)
  • Medical Fad: Lobotomy discussion- The procedure used to be a treatment choice for clinical issues. This was part of the discussion (see page 12)
  • Split Brain Procedures: This surgical procedure (that cuts the corpus callosum) became an important learning topic of investigation. Information from patients experiencing this procedure and the results of the research associated are detailed in various sections of this study guide
  • The Localization of Language- The brain regions responsible for language were explored as a section of the class learning material in section 22
  • Further information (videos) and additional Ted Talk links are also included.

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Description

This quiz focuses on the key concepts of PSYC 211, an introduction to behavioral neuroscience. Explore topics such as brain structure, neural activity, emotions, and more. Prepare for assessments throughout the course, including two midterms and a final exam.

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