Behavior and Learning: An Introduction

Introduction to Behavior and Learning

• Behavior is observable and measurable activity, which can be internal or external.
• Learning is defined as a permanent change in behavior resulting from experience.
• Classical conditioning occurs when inborn behaviors are elicited in new circumstances.
• Operant conditioning involves the strengthening or weakening of behavior due to consequences.
• Observational learning refers to learning by observing the behavior of others.

Plato vs. Aristotle

• Aristotle believed that a person's abilities and tendencies are learned, taking an empiricist or nurture perspective.
• Plato held a nativist viewpoint, assuming that a person's abilities are innate.

Mind-Body Dualism (Rene Descartes)

• Mind-body dualism suggests that the body functions like a machine, but the mind has free will, influencing voluntary behaviors.
• This concept helped establish the study of reflexive behaviors.

Structuralist Approach

• This approach aims to identify the basic elements to determine the structure of the mind.

Functionalist Approach (William James)

• The functionalist perspective views the mind as having evolved to help us adapt to the world.
• It focuses on studying adaptive processes rather than the structure of the mind.

Natural Selection

• Organisms capable of adapting to environmental pressures have a higher likelihood of reproducing
• Traits vary among organisms.
• Traits are passed on to offspring.
• Organisms compete or cooperate for limited resources.

Schools of Behaviorism: Methodological

• Psychologists should only study directly observable behavior

Schools of Behaviorism: Neobehavioralism

• Stimulus response connections are the building blocks of behavior
• Importance of both environment and behavior

Schools of Behaviorism: Cognitive Behaviorism

• Cognitive behaviorism utilizes intervening variables of hypothetical cognitive processes to explain behavior.
• A cognitive map is a mental representation of one's spatial surroundings.

Schools of Behaviorism: Social Learning Theory/Reciprocal

• Social learning theory emphasizes the role of observational learning along with cognitive variables in explaining human behavior.
• It assumes that environmental events, observable behavior, and thoughts can all influence one another.

Schools of Behaviorism: Radical

• Radical behaviorism emphasizes environmental influence on observable behavior.
• It rejects internal events as explanations for behavior.
• Self-control involves understanding how the environment affects us, allowing us to change the environment to our advantage.

B.F. Skinner

• B.F. Skinner is considered the father of behavior analysis.
• Skinner developed theories about self-discipline and verbal behavior.

Research Methods

• The independent variable is manipulated in experiments.
• A quasi-independent variable is an independent variable that cannot be experimentally manipulated.
• The dependent variable is the measured variable.
• An appetitive stimulus is an event an organism will seek out.
• An aversive stimulus is an event an organism will avoid.
• An establishing operation increases the likelihood of a response.
• An abolishing operation decreases the likelihood of a response.
• Satiation is prolonged exposure to or consumption of a stimulus.
• Deprivation is prolonged absence of a stimulus.

Measure of Behavior

• Rate of response is the number of responses in a time period.
• Intensity is the magnitude of behavior.
• Speed is how slow or fast a behavior occurs
• Duration is the length of time of continuous behavior.
• Latency is the amount of time before a behavior begins.
• Interval recording measures whether a behavior occurs during each interval.
• Time-sampling recording determines whether a behavior occurs during each interval.
• Topography involves observing the physical form of behavior.
• Validity measures how well operationalization captures what it intends to.
• Reliability measures the consistency of a method in producing consistent results.

Descriptive Research

• Descriptive research involves gathering and describing information about behavior without manipulating independent variables.

Surveys in Research

• In surveys, participants answer a set of questions.

Case Studies in Research

• Case studies involve intensive studies of a single individual.

Naturalistic Observation in Research

• Naturalistic observation involves observing and recording the occurrence of behavior within a natural environment.

Experimental Research

• Experimental research identifies functional relationships through the manipulation of independent variables.
• It offers more experimental control.
• Functional and causal relationships can be identified more easily.
• Experimental designs require a large number of subjects.
• Analysis and interpretation occur only at the end of the experiment.

Single-Comparison (AB) Design

• Behavior in a baseline condition is compared to behavior in an experimental/treatment condition.

Reversal (ABA) Design

• This design uses repeated alternations of simple comparisons.

Multiple Baseline Designs

• Treatment is instituted at successive points in time for two or more people, settings, or behaviors.
• These designs do not require withdrawal of treatment if effective.
• Appropriate in situations where treatment is likely to produce permanent change in behavior.
• A need for more than one person, setting, or behavior.
• Treatment effect might generalize across different settings or behaviors.

Changing-Criterion Design

• Treatment is demonstrated by how closely behavior matches a criterion that is systematically altered.

Changing-Criterion Design Advantages and Disadvantages

• This is ideal when behavior is intended to change gradually.
• It can be difficult to determine if behavior change is a result of treatment unless behavior matches changing criteria.

Animal Behavioral Research Advantages

• Research that cannot ethically be conducted on humans can be conducted on animals
• You can control genetic influences on behavior

Animal Behavioral Research Disadvantages

• Animal behavioral research involves violation of human rights.
• Findings have limited application to humans.