Basic Concepts of Matter and Chemical Properties

Matter: Anything that has mass and occupies space.
Atoms: Basic units of matter, composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
Elements: Pure substances made of one type of atom (e.g., Hydrogen, Oxygen).
Compounds: Substances formed when two or more elements chemically bond (e.g., H2O).

Solid: Definite shape and volume; particles are closely packed.
Liquid: Definite volume but takes the shape of its container; particles are close but can move.
Gas: No definite shape or volume; particles are far apart and move freely.
Plasma: Ionized gas with free electrons and ions; found in stars.

Ionic Bonds: Formed through the transfer of electrons from one atom to another, creating charged ions.
Covalent Bonds: Involve the sharing of electron pairs between atoms.
Metallic Bonds: Involve a sea of shared electrons among a lattice of metal atoms.

Reactants: Substances that undergo change during a reaction.
Products: Substances formed as a result of a chemical reaction.
Types of Reactions:
- Synthesis: Two or more reactants combine to form one product.
- Decomposition: A single compound breaks down into two or more products.
- Single Replacement: An element replaces another in a compound.
- Double Replacement: Exchange of ions between two compounds.
- Combustion: Reaction with oxygen producing heat and light, often forming CO2 and H2O.

Groups: Vertical columns; elements share similar chemical properties.
Periods: Horizontal rows; properties change progressively across a period.
Metals: Good conductors of heat and electricity, malleable, and ductile.
Nonmetals: Poor conductors, brittle in solid form, varied states at room temperature.
Metalloids: Exhibit properties of both metals and nonmetals.

Acids: Substances that donate protons (H+) in a solution; taste sour, turn litmus red.
Bases: Substances that accept protons or donate hydroxide ions (OH-); taste bitter, turn litmus blue.
pH Scale: Measures the acidity or basicity of a solution (0-14 scale).
- pH < 7: Acidic
- pH = 7: Neutral
- pH > 7: Basic

Mole: A unit that measures the amount of substance; Avogadro's number (6.022 x 10²³).
Molar Mass: Mass of one mole of a substance, expressed in g/mol.
Balanced Equations: Chemical equations must be balanced to comply with the law of conservation of mass.

Hydrocarbons: Compounds made exclusively of carbon and hydrogen.
- Alkanes: Saturated hydrocarbons (single bonds).
- Alkenes: Unsaturated hydrocarbons (at least one double bond).
- Alkynes: Unsaturated hydrocarbons (at least one triple bond).
Functional Groups: Specific groups of atoms that affect the chemical behavior of molecules (e.g., alcohols, carboxylic acids).

Catalyst: A substance that increases the rate of a reaction without being consumed.
Equilibrium: The state in which the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction.
Solubility: The ability of a substance to dissolve in a solvent at a given temperature and pressure.

Matter consists of anything that possesses mass and occupies space.
Atoms are the fundamental units of matter, containing protons, neutrons, and electrons.
Elements are singular types of atoms, examples include Hydrogen and Oxygen.
Compounds form from the chemical bonding of two or more different elements, such as water (H2O).

Solids have a fixed shape and volume, with particles tightly packed in a structured arrangement.
Liquids maintain a constant volume but conform to the shape of their container, with particles that are close yet mobile.
Gases lack both definite shape and volume, with particles widely spaced and in constant motion.
Plasma consists of ionized gas with free electrons and ions, commonly found in celestial bodies like stars.

Ionic bonds arise from the transfer of electrons, resulting in the formation of charged ions.
Covalent bonds involve the sharing of electron pairs between atoms, facilitating molecular formation.
Metallic bonds occur in metals, where electrons are shared in a "sea" among a lattice of metal atoms, promoting conductivity.

Reactants are the substances involved in a chemical change, while products are the resulting substances post-reaction.
Types of chemical reactions include:
- Synthesis: combining two or more reactants into one product.
- Decomposition: breaking down one compound into multiple products.
- Single Replacement: one element displaces another within a compound.
- Double Replacement: ions are exchanged between two compounds.
- Combustion: reaction with oxygen producing heat, light, and commonly CO2 and H2O.

Elements are organized in groups (vertical columns) that share similar chemical traits.
Periods (horizontal rows) indicate a gradual change in properties across the table.
Metals are characterized by good conductivity, malleability, and ductility.
Nonmetals are typically poor conductors and brittle in solid form, existing in various states at room temperature.
Metalloids display characteristics of both metals and nonmetals, blurring the lines between the two categories.

Acids generate protons (H+) in solution, exhibiting a sour taste and turning litmus paper red.
Bases accept protons or release hydroxide ions (OH-), typically tasting bitter and turning litmus paper blue.
The pH scale measures a solution's acidity or basicity, ranging from 0 to 14:
- pH < 7 indicates acidity,
- pH = 7 signifies neutrality,
- pH > 7 indicates basicity.

Endothermic reactions absorb heat from their surroundings.
Exothermic reactions release heat to their surroundings.
Activation energy is the minimal energy threshold required to start a chemical reaction.

A mole quantifies the amount of substance, equivalent to Avogadro's number (6.022 x 10²³).
Molar mass is the mass of one mole of a substance, measured in grams per mole (g/mol).
Balanced equations ensure compliance with the law of conservation of mass, indicating that mass remains constant throughout a reaction.

Hydrocarbons consist solely of carbon and hydrogen atoms.
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons characterized by single bonds.
Alkenes feature at least one double bond, classifying them as unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Alkynes contain at least one triple bond, also classifying them as unsaturated.
Functional groups are specific atom compositions within organic molecules influencing their chemical behavior, such as alcohols and carboxylic acids.

Wearing appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) is essential to ensure safety.
Familiarity with Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) is crucial for handling hazardous chemicals.
Proper labeling and storage of chemicals are vital for laboratory safety and organization.

A catalyst enhances reaction rates without getting consumed in the process.
Equilibrium is reached when the forward reaction's rate equals the reverse reaction's rate.
Solubility indicates how readily a substance can dissolve in a solvent at specific temperature and pressure conditions.