Basic Chemistry of Biomolecules
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Questions and Answers

What results from the hydrolysis of the anomeric carbon in carbohydrates?

-OH bond formation.

Explain the process that leads to glycoside formation in carbohydrates.

Condensation of the anomeric hydroxyl group with another hydroxyl group, eliminating water.

What characteristics define a chiral carbon in carbohydrates?

A chiral carbon is connected to four different atoms or groups.

Differentiate between laevorotatory and dextrorotatory carbohydrates.

<p>Laevorotatory rotates light left (denoted L), while dextrorotatory rotates it right (denoted d).</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the potential consequences of carbohydrate deficiency in the body?

<p>It can lead to serious health problems.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do structural polysaccharides like chitin and cellulose play in living organisms?

<p>They provide mechanical stability to cells, organs, and organisms.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do storage polysaccharides function in the body, and can you name two examples?

<p>Storage polysaccharides store carbohydrates that release sugar when needed; examples include starch and glycogen.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of heteropolysaccharides in biological systems?

<p>Heteropolysaccharides contain different sugar units and have diverse functions, such as anticoagulants and structural components.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to carbohydrates during the process of oxidation?

<p>Carbohydrates oxidize to produce carboxylic acids, classifying them as reducing sugars.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain the alkylation reaction in carbohydrates and name the alkylating agents involved.

<p>Alkylation involves -OH groups in carbohydrates reacting with alkylating agents such as alkyl halides and benzyl halides.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are some examples of glycosaminoglycans and their functions?

<p>Examples include hyaluronic acid, heparan sulfate, and keratan sulfate, which serve functions like lubrication and anticoagulation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe how carbohydrates can be reduced and the products of this reaction.

<p>Reduction converts the C=O group in carbohydrates to alcohol, resulting in alditols, with aldehydes forming primary alcohols and ketoses forming secondary alcohols.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of enzyme amylase in relation to storage polysaccharides?

<p>Amylase catalyzes the breakdown of starch into simpler sugars to meet energy requirements in the body.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are structural polysaccharides and provide one example?

<p>Structural polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates that provide support and structural integrity to cells and organisms; an example is cellulose.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Define storage polysaccharides and name one common type.

<p>Storage polysaccharides are carbohydrates that serve as energy reserves; common types include starch and glycogen.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of chemical reaction is commonly involved in the formation of carbohydrates?

<p>Condensation reactions, specifically dehydration synthesis, are commonly involved in forming carbohydrates by linking monosaccharides together.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are glycosaminoglycans and their primary function?

<p>Glycosaminoglycans are long unbranched polysaccharides that play crucial roles in maintaining tissue hydration and elasticity; an example is hyaluronic acid.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain the concept of optical activity in carbohydrates.

<p>Optical activity in carbohydrates refers to their ability to rotate plane-polarized light due to the presence of chiral carbon atoms.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How are carbohydrates classified based on their size and structure?

<p>Carbohydrates are classified into monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides based on the number of sugar units present.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the two primary types of carbohydrates based on their functional groups?

<p>The primary types of carbohydrates based on functional groups are aldoses, which have an aldehyde group, and ketoses, which have a ketone group.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Give one example of a digestible polysaccharide and a non-digestible polysaccharide.

<p>An example of a digestible polysaccharide is starch, while cellulose is a non-digestible polysaccharide.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Hydrolysis of -OR bond

The -OR bond at the anomeric carbon breaks down to form an -OH bond.

Glycoside formation

Carbohydrates form glycosides when their anomeric hydroxyl group bonds with another carbohydrate's hydroxyl group, releasing a water molecule.

Optical activity

A molecule's ability to rotate plane-polarized light.

Chiral carbon/center

A carbon atom bonded to four different atoms or groups.

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Carbohydrate Optical Activity

Most carbohydrates are optically active due to the presence of chiral carbons.

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Structural Polysaccharides

Polysaccharides that provide structural support to cells and organisms.

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Storage Polysaccharides

Polysaccharides that store energy for later use.

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Chitin

A structural polysaccharide found in fungal cell walls.

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Cellulose

A structural polysaccharide found in plant cell walls; important for ruminant diet.

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Starch

A storage polysaccharide in plants.

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Glycogen

A storage polysaccharide in animals, bacteria, and fungi.

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Heteropolysaccharides

Polysaccharides made up of two or more different sugars.

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Reducing Sugars

Sugars that readily undergo oxidation to produce carboxylic acids.

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Biomolecules

Substances produced by cells and living organisms, with diverse sizes and functions.

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Carbohydrates

Organic compounds with the general formula Cn(H2O)n, composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

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Monosaccharides

Simple sugars with the chemical formula C6H12O6.

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Disaccharides

Two monosaccharides combined.

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Oligosaccharides

3-6 monosaccharides combined.

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Polysaccharides

More than 6 monosaccharides combined.

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Aldoses

Carbohydrates containing an aldehyde functional group.

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Ketoses

Carbohydrates containing a ketone functional group.

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Study Notes

Basic Chemistry of Biomolecules

  • Biomolecules are substances produced by cells and living organisms.
  • They have diverse structures and functions.
  • Small biomolecules include sugars, fatty acids, amino acids, and nucleotides.
  • Major biomolecules (macromolecules) are carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, proteins, vitamins, hormones, and enzymes.

Carbohydrates

  • Carbohydrates are widespread organic substances.
  • Their chemical formula is Cn(Hâ‚‚O)n, which is also known as "hydrated carbon."
  • Chemically, they are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones, or their derivatives or polymers.
  • Common sources of carbohydrates include potatoes, maize, milk, popcorn, and bread.
  • Classification is based on chemical structure and digestibility.
    • Monosaccharides: simple sugars (e.g., glucose, fructose).
    • Disaccharides: two simple sugars bonded together (e.g., sucrose).
    • Oligosaccharides: three to six monosaccharide units.
    • Polysaccharides: more than six monosaccharide units.
  • Classification based on functional groups:
    • Aldoses (aldehyde group, e.g., glucose).
    • Ketoses (ketone group, e.g., fructose).
  • Classification based on the number of carbon atoms:
    • Trioses (3 carbon atoms).
    • Tetroses (4 carbon atoms).
    • Pentoses (5 carbon atoms).
    • Hexoses (6 carbon atoms).
    • Heptoses (7 carbon atoms).
  • Monosaccharides cannot be hydrolyzed further.
  • Glucose is also known as aldohexose and dextrose.
  • Reducing sugars have a free aldehyde or ketone functional group.
  • Disaccharides are composed of two sugar units joined by O-glycosidic bonds.
  • Examples of disaccharides include sucrose, lactose, and maltose.
  • Polysaccharides are large molecules with many monosaccharide units linked together.
  • Examples include cellulose, starch, and glycogen.
  • Glycogen is a branched chain of glucose molecules, stored as an energy source in animals.
  • Heteropolysaccharides contain two or more different types of sugar units (e.g., hyaluronic acid, heparin).
  • Chemical reactions of carbohydrates include alkylation (forming ethers) and acylation (forming esters).

Biological and Pharmaceutical Importance of Carbohydrates

  • Carbohydrates are an instant energy source (4 calories/gram).
  • Balanced carbohydrate intake is crucial for normal blood glucose levels.
  • Excessive intake can lead to diabetes.
  • Carbohydrates (sucrose, lactose, starch, gums) are used in food preparation (syrups, tablets, infant food).
  • Other uses include laxatives (mucilage, lactulose), antacids/diuretics (sucralfate, mannitol, sorbitol), and culture media (agar).
  • Some carbohydrates are used in drugs (streptomycin).

Other

  • Optical activity of a molecule is its ability to rotate polarized light.
  • Chiral carbons are carbon atoms attached to four different atoms or groups.
  • Carbohydrates are generally optically active due to chiral carbons.
  • Reduction of carbohydrates by sodium borohydride reduces the carbonyl group (C=O) to an alcohol.
  • Oxidation of carbohydrates forms carboxylic acids.
  • Hydrolysis breaks glycosidic bonds in disaccharides and polysaccharides.
  • Glycoside formation occurs through condensation.

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Lecture 2, 3: Basic Chemistry of Biomolecules

Description

This quiz covers the fundamental concepts of biomolecules, including small biomolecules like sugars and the major macromolecules such as carbohydrates and proteins. It provides insights into the structures, classification, and functions of these essential compounds in living organisms.

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