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Questions and Answers
Which cell type is characterized by a membrane-bound nucleus?
Which cell type is characterized by a membrane-bound nucleus?
What is the primary role of DNA in a cell?
What is the primary role of DNA in a cell?
What is the primary component of the cell membrane?
What is the primary component of the cell membrane?
Which type of evolution describes changes that occur over many generations?
Which type of evolution describes changes that occur over many generations?
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What structural role do polysaccharides have in plants?
What structural role do polysaccharides have in plants?
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What type of bond links monosaccharides together to form disaccharides?
What type of bond links monosaccharides together to form disaccharides?
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Which process involves converting the information from a gene into a cellular product?
Which process involves converting the information from a gene into a cellular product?
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Which macromolecule is primarily involved in speeding up chemical reactions in the body?
Which macromolecule is primarily involved in speeding up chemical reactions in the body?
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What is the simplest form of carbohydrates?
What is the simplest form of carbohydrates?
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Which of the following are considered lipids?
Which of the following are considered lipids?
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Which of the following structures is the primary determinant of a protein's function?
Which of the following structures is the primary determinant of a protein's function?
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What best describes the term 'emergent properties' in biological systems?
What best describes the term 'emergent properties' in biological systems?
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Which of the following is NOT considered a domain in biological classification?
Which of the following is NOT considered a domain in biological classification?
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What is the primary role of DNA in cells?
What is the primary role of DNA in cells?
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Which sugar is present in ribonucleic acid (RNA)?
Which sugar is present in ribonucleic acid (RNA)?
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Which base pairs with adenine in DNA?
Which base pairs with adenine in DNA?
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What does denaturation refer to in proteins?
What does denaturation refer to in proteins?
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What is the main function of mitochondria in cells?
What is the main function of mitochondria in cells?
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What is the structure of a nucleotide?
What is the structure of a nucleotide?
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Which statement accurately describes the endosymbiotic theory?
Which statement accurately describes the endosymbiotic theory?
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What type of reaction is hydrolysis?
What type of reaction is hydrolysis?
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What distinguishes purines from pyrimidines?
What distinguishes purines from pyrimidines?
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What is the primary energy carrier produced during cellular respiration?
What is the primary energy carrier produced during cellular respiration?
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Which components are found in the double membranes of mitochondria and chloroplasts?
Which components are found in the double membranes of mitochondria and chloroplasts?
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Which base is unique to RNA as opposed to DNA?
Which base is unique to RNA as opposed to DNA?
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What major synthesis process does dehydration synthesis involve?
What major synthesis process does dehydration synthesis involve?
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What defines the antiparallel nature of DNA strands?
What defines the antiparallel nature of DNA strands?
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What is the primary role of the cytoskeleton in a cell?
What is the primary role of the cytoskeleton in a cell?
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Which type of cytoskeletal fiber is the thickest?
Which type of cytoskeletal fiber is the thickest?
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How do motor proteins interact with the cytoskeleton?
How do motor proteins interact with the cytoskeleton?
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What are desmosomes primarily responsible for?
What are desmosomes primarily responsible for?
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Which component is essential for the formation of the extracellular matrix in animal cells?
Which component is essential for the formation of the extracellular matrix in animal cells?
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What do microfilaments primarily help with in a cell?
What do microfilaments primarily help with in a cell?
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What is the function of tight junctions in animal cells?
What is the function of tight junctions in animal cells?
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What role do aquaporins play in cell membranes?
What role do aquaporins play in cell membranes?
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How does passive transport differ from active transport?
How does passive transport differ from active transport?
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Which type of cytoskeletal fiber interacts with myosin for muscle contraction?
Which type of cytoskeletal fiber interacts with myosin for muscle contraction?
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What distinguishes the cell walls of plant cells from the extracellular matrix of animal cells?
What distinguishes the cell walls of plant cells from the extracellular matrix of animal cells?
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During which process do microtubules play a critical role in animal cells?
During which process do microtubules play a critical role in animal cells?
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Why can hydrophobic molecules easily cross the plasma membrane?
Why can hydrophobic molecules easily cross the plasma membrane?
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What is a defining characteristic of intermediate filaments?
What is a defining characteristic of intermediate filaments?
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Study Notes
Emergent Properties
- The arrangement and interaction of parts within a system result in emergent properties.
- Emergent properties are a characteristic found in a system that is not present in any of the system’s individual components.
Biological Organization
- Life can be studied at different levels of organization, starting with the smallest unit of life - the cell, and progressively increasing in complexity.
- The organization of living things is hierarchical, with each level building upon the previous one.
- Here is an example of the hierarchy of biological organization:
- Molecules
- Organelles
- Cells
- Tissues
- Organs
- Organisms
- Populations
- Communities
- Ecosystems
- Biosphere
The Cell
- Cells are the smallest unit of life.
- Cells share certain basic characteristics.
- Cells can be classified as prokaryotic or eukaryotic.
- Eukaryotic cells have membrane-bound organelles, including a nucleus that contains DNA.
- Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.
- Prokaryotic cells are generally smaller than eukaryotic cells.
Genetic Material
- Chromosomes contain a cell's genetic material in the form of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).
- DNA holds genes, which are units of inheritance that transmit information from parents to offspring.
- DNA is made of two long chains arranged in a double helix.
- Each link in a chain is made of one of four nucleotides: adenine (A), cytosine (C), thymine (T), and guanine (G).
- DNA provides blueprints for making proteins.
- Proteins are major players in building and maintaining cells.
Gene Expression
- Gene expression is the process of converting information from a gene to its cellular product.
- This process involves the use of RNA (ribonucleic acid).
Energy Transfer
- Life requires the transfer of energy.
- The input of energy is mainly from the sun.
- Plants and other producers convert energy from the sun into chemical energy.
- This chemical energy is then passed to consumers.
- Energy flows through ecosystems.
- Generally, energy is transferred from sunlight to heat.
- Energy is not recycled.
Organism Interactions
- Every organism interacts with other organisms and with physical factors in its environment.
Evolution
- Evolution is the process of biological change in which differences between organisms accumulate gradually from their ancestors.
- Evolution is the primary cause of the diversity of life on Earth.
Classifying Diversity
- Organisms are grouped by similarities, both physical and molecular.
- The three main domains of life are Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.
- Bacteria are the most diverse and are classified into various kingdoms.
- Archaea are prokaryotes that live in extreme environments.
- Eukarya includes the kingdoms Plantae, Fungi, Animalia, and protists.
Darwin
- Darwin proposed the theory of natural selection.
- Darwin’s theory of evolution includes the concept of “descent with modification.”
- Natural selection is the primary cause of descent with modification.
- Darwin observed that individuals vary in traits that are heritable, that more offspring are produced than can survive, and that species generally suit their environment.
- Darwin reasoned that individuals best suited for their environment are likely to survive and reproduce, and that over time, more individuals will have the advantageous trait.
The Tree of Life
- Natural selection can cause ancestral species to give rise to two or more descendant species.
- This process can be visualized as a tree of life, with the branches representing the diversification of organisms over time.
Macromolecules
Carbohydrates
- Carbohydrates include sugars and polymers of sugars.
- The simplest carbohydrates are monosaccharides (simple sugars).
- Carbohydrate macromolecules are polysaccharides.
- Polysaccharides are polymers composed of many sugar building blocks.
Monosaccharides
- Monosaccharides have molecular formulas that are usually multiples of CH2O.
- The most common monosaccharide is glucose (C6H12O6).
- Monosaccharides are classified by the number of carbons in the carbon skeleton and the placement of the carbonyl group.
Disaccharide Synthesis
- Disaccharides are formed by the joining of two monosaccharides via a glycosidic bond.
Polysaccharides
- Polysaccharides are polymers of sugars that have storage and structural roles.
- Storage polysaccharides include starch (in plants) and glycogen (in animals).
- Structural polysaccharides include cellulose (in plants) and chitin (in arthropods and fungi).
Lipids
- Lipids are diverse group of hydrophobic molecules.
- Lipids do not form true polymers.
- Lipids have little to no affinity for water and are hydrophobic due to nonpolar covalent bonds.
- The most important types of lipids include fats, phospholipids, and steroids.
Fats
- Fats are constructed of glycerol and fatty acids.
- Glycerol is a three-carbon alcohol with a hydroxyl group attached to each carbon.
- Fatty acids consist of a carboxyl group attached to a long carbon skeleton.
- Fats store energy.
- Fats are compact.
Phospholipids
- Phospholipids have a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tails.
- Phospholipids create a bilayer, which is a key component of cell membranes.
Steroids
- Steroids are lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings.
- Cholesterol is an important steroid; it is a component of animal cell membranes.
- High levels of cholesterol can be dangerous.
Proteins
- Proteins make up the majority of the dry mass of cells.
- Proteins act as catalysts (enzymes).
- A catalyst speeds up chemical reactions without being consumed.
Amino Acids
- Amino acids are the basic building blocks of proteins.
- Amino acids are organic molecules with both an amino group and a carboxyl group.
- Amino acids differ in properties due to differing R groups.
Polypeptides
- Polypeptides are unbranched polymers built from the same set of 20 amino acids.
Protein Structure
- A protein’s biologically functional model consists of one or more polypeptides.
- A functional protein consists of one or more polypeptides precisely twisted, folded, and coiled into a unique shape.
- A protein’s structure determines its function.
- The amino acid sequence is the most important aspect of protein function.
Levels of Protein Structure
- Proteins have four levels of structure:
- Primary
- Secondary
- Tertiary
- Quaternary (more than one polypeptide chain)
Factors Affecting Protein Structure
- Physical and chemical conditions can affect protein structure.
- These conditions include pH, salinity, and temperature.
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