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Mid Term Review: Chapters 1-6

Chapter 1: Foundations of Psychological Science

• Sigmund Freud(1856-1939) developed psychoanalysis to explore unconscious conflicts and emotional problems, also called the "Talking Cure".
• Freud believed that unconscious processes, rather than external stimuli, govern human behavior.
• Repressed unconscious thoughts are kept out of awareness because they're threatening.
• Dreams, emotions, and slips of the tongue can reveal unconscious thoughts, these are called "Freudian slips".
• The personality structure includes the Id, Ego, and Super Ego, the Id being innate and instinctual.
• Abraham Maslow(1908-1970) developed Humanistic Theory.
• Maslow believed that people are inherently good and consciously motivated to learn and improve.
• Psychological needs include love, self-esteem, belonging, self-expression, creativity, and spirituality.
• Maslow's theory prioritizes a hierarchy of needs, working from more fundamental needs up to self-actualization.
• Self-actualization is the realization or fulfillment of one's talents and potentialities.
• A placebo is any treatment lacking active qualities or therapeutic value, like a sugar pill.
• The placebo effect refers to behavioral changes resulting solely from participants' expectations that a treatment will have some effect.
• Critical thinking includes collecting & analyzing evidence, and evaluating theories.
• The ability to ask hard questions such as "Could there be a better way" and "What evidence supports the existing theory" are aspects of critical thinking.
• A variable is a factor, trait, or condition with differing amounts or types.
• An independent variable is changed or controlled by the experimenter to observe its effects on the dependent variable examples are vitamins, exercise, sleep, diet.
• A dependent variable is expected to change as a result of experimental manipulation examples are test scores, blood pressure, weight.
• Extraneous variables are those not being investigated yet can impact research study outcomes, leading to inaccurate conclusions on the relationship between independent and dependent variables (example: people wearing lab coats).
• The experimental group gets exposed to the independent variable to receive the intervention.
• The control group does not receive the treatment or intervention.

Chapter 2: Brain and Behavior

• The nervous system is comprised of the central and peripheral nervous systems.
• The central nervous system contains the brain and spinal cord.
• The peripheral nervous system contains the cranial and spinal nerves.
• The autonomic nervous system controls heart muscle, smooth muscle, and glands.
• The somatic nervous system controls voluntary skeletal muscles.
• The parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system controls "rest and digest" functions.
• The sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system controls "active and alert" functions.
• Neurons are single cells that transmit information.
• Important parts of the neuron include the dendrite, cell body, axon, schwann cell, and myelin sheath.
• Neurotransmitters are "message" chemicals released at the synapsis.
• Neurotransmitters move information from one nerve cell to another nerve, muscle, or gland.
• These messages facilitate movement, sensation, heartbeat, and response to internal and external information.
• Neuroplasticity is the brain's ability to adapt to changes in an individual's environment by forming new neural connections over time.
• Neurogenesis is the process of forming new neurons.
• The frontal lobe is responsible for thinking, speaking, memory and movement.
• The temporal lobe is responsible for hearing, learning, feelings, and fear.
• The pariental lobe is responsible for language, touch, taste, and smell.
• The occipital lobe is responsible for vision, color, and recognizing letters (left/right).
• The cerebellum is responsible for coordination and balance.
• The brain stem is responsible for breathing, heart rate, temperature, and blood pressure.
• Injury to the occipital lobe can cause Visual Agnosia, where a person sees but can't interpret visual information.
• For example, a person could identify the wheels, seat, and handlebars of a bicycle but can't recognize them as part of the whole bicycle.
• Facial Agnosia occurs when there is an inability to recognize faces, facial expressions, and cues.
• The amygdala is responsible for processing emotions, including fearful and threatening stimuli.
• The Hippocampus is responsible for storing long term memories, learning, memory, and spatial navigation

Chapter 3: Human Development

• In Prenatal Development genetics play a vital role(nature).
• Every cell's nucleus contains DNA (genetic code).
• DNA is organized into 46 chromosomes, 23 from each parent.
• A gene is part of a chromosome.
• Variations in genes can directly cause health conditions or raise/lower the risk of a condition.
• A dominant gene expresses or controls a particular feature.
• A recessive gene must pair with another recessive gene to be expressed.
• Teratogens are agents/factors causing embryo malformation.
  • Examples: Thalidomide, accutane, and alcohol.
• Parenting styles include: Authoritarian, Overly Permissive, Authoritative, and Avoidant.
• Authoritarian is rigid rules and demand obedience and commonly withdrawn/ lack curiosity.
• Overly permissive gives little guidance, allows too much freedom, or don't hold children accountable and commonly self-indulgent, lack self-control.
• Authoritative is firm and consistent guidance combined with love/affection, teaching positive coping skills and commonly competent, self-controlled, independent & assertive
• Avoidant is unmet emotional needs and commonly independent, with problems in relationships.
• Object permanence, according to Piaget, develops during the sensorimotor stage (0-2 years).
• Object permanence recognizes that physical things continue to exist even when they are no longer visible
• Erik Erikson developed the Psychosocial Stages.
  • Stage 1: Infancy(0-18 months) Basic Conflict: Trust vs. Mistrust.
  • Stage 2: Early Childhood(2-3) Basic Conflict: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt.
  • Stage 3: Preschool(3-5) Basic Conflict: Initiative vs. Guilt.
  • Stage 4: School Age(6-11) Basic Conflict: Industry vs. Inferiority.
  • Stage 5: Adolescence(12-18) Basic Conflict: Identity vs. Role Confusion.
  • Stage 6: Young Adult(19-40) Basic Conflict: Intimacy vs. Isolation.
  • Stage 7: Middle Adulthood(40-65) Basic Conflict: Generativity vs. Stagnation.
  • Stage 8: Maturity(65-death) Basic Conflict: Ego Identity vs. Despair.
• Cognitive Development discusses how children learn and includes thinking, learning, memory and problem-solving
• Jean Piaget understood that children think differently than adults.
• He developed early insights into how children develop cognitive skills and for understanding how knowledge grows throughout adulthood.
• Children sort acquired knowledge through experiences and interactions into groupings called schemas.
• When new information is aquired one can assimilate into the exisiting schema or accommodate to revise the existing schema.
• Elizabeth Kubler-Ross discusses Death and Dying
• The "5 stages of Grief" include 1)Denial and isolation 2)Anger 3)Bargaining 4)Depression 5)Acceptance
• Successful Aging tips include: Maintaining subjective well-being, being in good health, having positive relationships and staying intellectually engaged
• General life satisfaction combined with frequent positive emotions and relatively few negative emotions

Chapter 4: Sensation, Attention, and Perception

• Our senses translates things we see, feel, hear, taste and smell into a form that the brain can understand.
• Sensing the world is the first step in perceiving the world.
• Perception is defined as the mental process of organizing sensations into meaningful patterns.
• Perception happens after information arrives in the brain.
• Color blindness is an inability to perceive color.
• Color weakness is an inability to distinguish certain colors.
• Dark adaption is the increased light sensitivity of the eye under low light conditions (temporary blindness when walking from bright room to dark room).
• Conductive hearing loss describes the poor transfer of sounds from the eardrum to the inner ear.
• Sensorineural hearing loss describes the loss of hearing caused by damage to the inner ear.
• Noise induced hearing loss is sensorineural loss caused by damaged hair cells from exposure to excessively loud sounds.
• Somatic senses deal with touch.
• Kinesthetic senses are receptors that detect body position and movement located in the muscles and joints.
• Proprioception gives awareness of the position and movement of the parts of the body using sensory organs.
• Vestibular senses are receptors that provide coordination in movement; located in the inner ear, and provide coordination of Balance, gravity and acceleration.
• Olfaction the sensation of smell, which comes olfactory receptor cells.
• Gustavation is the sensation of taste, which comes taste buds, a cluster of taste receptor cells
• Gate Control Theory suggests pain messages pass through the same neural gates in the spinal cord.
  • A use of distraction has been found to reduce pain, and rubbing an injured spot has show to "close the gate".
• Selective attention is being able to give priority to a particular incoming sensory message.
• Inattentional blindness defines failure to notice a stimulus because attention is focused elsewhere.
• Depth perception enables the ability to perceive distance to objects using the visual system and visual perception.
• Depth perception is a significant factor in perceiving the world in three dimensions.

Chapter 5: States of Consciousness

• Physical Ability can improve with hypnosis for Sports performance
• Memory- Improve memory
• Amnesia - If told to forget something while hypnotized; usually it's brief effect
• Pain relief - phantom limb pain
• Sensory Changes - How change way we sense things with hearing, touch vision, odors, and illusions.
• Characteristics during Sleep Stage 1 shows heart rate lower, breathing is irratic, body musles relax, and includes small/ irregular waves of EEG with some alpha waves so you may not know you are asleep.
• Characteristics during Sleep Stage 2 show a drop in body temperature, EEG of Sleep Spindles, short spurts of distinctive brain wave activity helping prevent being aroused.
• Characteristics during Stage 3 shows deeper sleep, loss of consciousness, EEG of Delta waves
• REM sleep has characteristics such as:
  • During lighter sleep
  • Rapid Eye Movement
  • Rem is when you dream
  • May look like the person is awake
  • When you awake it you may recall vivid dreams
• People can have high emotions/irregular patterns and feel very still.
• Sleep deprivation has effects such as; poor concentration, irritability, tremors, and inattention.
• Microsleeps can occur, falling asleep for seconds driving accidents to happen.
• People may experience a Sleep deprivation psychosis from deprivation, loss of contact of reality.
• Hypersomnia increased need adolescents/puberty.
• Characteristics during stage 4; Deep, more difficult to wake up or if you did you could be confused.

Chapter 6: Conditioning and Learning

• Behaviors can be learn through, connecting a neutral stimulus with a positive one.
• It's an unconscious/automatic type of learning.
• "Neutral Stimulus" - Stimulus does not evoke a response
• "Unconditioned Stimulus" Something causes response/no prior experience
• Conditioned stimulus- (pairs with unconditioned stimulus - learned response.
• Conditoned Response (Learned response with stimulus)
• Behavior is determined by what PRECEDED it! (INVOLUNTARY)
• Behavior determined by WHAT FOLLOWS IT!
• A positive reinforcement adds & increase the likelihood of the desired behavior.
• A negative reinforcement removes & increase likelihood of the desired behavior.
• Reinforcement leads to increase (Likelihood of a behavior)
• A positive punishment adds to DECREASE behavior.
• A negative punishment removes to DECREASE behavior.
• Punishment leads to decrease (Likelihood of a behavior)
• Weakens response by repeatedly presenting condition stimulus, the unconditional response
• The return of learned response.
• Operant Stimulus Generalization : Respond to stimuli similar to reinforce
• Operant stimulus discrimination is tendency to make response stimuli and withhold when stimuli is non rewarded.
• Shaping Is gradually molding response to Final desired pattern
• timing
• consistent
• intensity
• Modeling
• Young and those with emotional /behavior or learning problem may.
• Exposure could desensitize.
• Variables Affecting Punishment: Timing, consistency, and intensity.
• Timing has the best response when done immediately.