Atomic Structure Quiz
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Atomic Structure Quiz

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Questions and Answers

What particle in the nucleus of an atom has a positive charge?

  • Proton (correct)
  • Neutron
  • Electron
  • Photon

    • An electron has a positive charge.

    False

    What is the mass of a neutron?

    1.675 x 10^-24

    The sum of the masses of the protons and neutrons accounts for the atomic ______.

    <p>mass</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which quantum number describes the spatial orientation of an orbital?

    <p>Magnetic quantum number (ml)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following quantum numbers with their descriptions:

    <p>n = Principal quantum number l = Suborbital quantum number ml = Magnetic quantum number ms = Spin quantum number</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Hund's rule states that electrons must occupy degenerate orbitals singly with opposite spins.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What principle is used to determine the electron configuration of an atom?

    <p>Aufbau principle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which electronic configuration represents a more stable configuration for chromium?

    <p>3d54s1</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ionization involves losing the most tightly held electrons first.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the chemical process called that results in the formation of cations?

    <p>Ionization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The periodic table is arranged based on elements' atomic numbers, electron configurations, and recurring __________ properties.

    <p>chemical</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the elements with their atomic numbers:

    <p>Sodium = 11 Oxygen = 8 Copper = 29 Manganese = 25</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following elements tends to form anions by accepting electrons?

    <p>Oxygen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Electronegativity increases as you move from left to right in a period.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of bond is characterized by the transfer of electrons from one atom to another?

    <p>Ionic bond</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The __________ attraction occurs between negatively charged electrons in one atom and the positively charged nucleus of another atom.

    <p>Coulombic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the electronic configuration for copper?

    <p>3d104s1</p> Signup and view all the answers

    All elements in the transition series have completely filled d orbitals.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which orbital configurations are considered typical elements in periods 2 and 3?

    <p>Filled s and p orbitals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The elements known as __________ are formed by filling very low-lying f orbitals.

    <p>lanthanides and actinides</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following types of bonds with their characteristics:

    <p>Covalent bond = Sharing of electron pairs Ionic bond = Transfer of electrons Polar bond = Unequal sharing of electrons Nonpolar bond = Equal sharing of electrons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What geometry is associated with sp3 hybridized orbitals?

    <p>Tetrahedral</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ionic bonding involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of hybridization do boron and aluminum compounds exhibit?

    <p>sp2 hybridization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The bond angle in a water molecule (H2O) is closer to __________ degrees.

    <p>104</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the type of hybridization with the number of equivalent orbitals it produces:

    <p>sp = 2 sp2 = 3 sp3 = 4 sp3d = 5</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements regarding covalent bonds is true?

    <p>Covalent bonds share electron pairs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In ionic bonds, metals tend to gain electrons to form anions.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Name one characteristic of sp hybrid orbitals.

    <p>Equally oriented 180° apart</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The type of hybridization seen in ethylene (C2H4) is __________.

    <p>sp2</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which best describes electronegativity?

    <p>A measure of an atom's ability to attract and hold electrons.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Pi bonds are formed in the same way as sigma bonds.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What determines the polarity of a covalent bond?

    <p>Difference in electronegativity between the bonded atoms.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The use of hybrid orbitals to describe the bonding in molecules is known as __________.

    <p>hybridization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms to their definitions:

    <p>Sigma bond = A bond formed by the direct overlap of orbitals. Pi bond = A bond formed by sideways overlap of p orbitals. Covalent bond = A bond formed by sharing electron pairs. Ionic bond = A bond formed by electrostatic attraction between charged ions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of bond is formed in carbon dioxide (CO2)?

    <p>Double covalent bond</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Coordinate covalent bonds involve both electrons coming from different atoms.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of hydrogen bonding?

    <p>It occurs between a partially positive hydrogen atom and electronegative atoms.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    CO2 is an example of a __________ bonded molecule.

    <p>double covalently</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their descriptions:

    <p>Ligand = A molecule that can donate a pair of electrons Chelate = A ring structure formed by a ligand and a metal Hydrogen Bond = A weak dipole-dipole interaction involving hydrogen Van der Waals Forces = Weak attractions between nonpolar molecules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which bonding interaction involves the donation of an electron pair from one atom?

    <p>Coordinate covalent bonding</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The maximum coordination number of a metal ion is a fixed property.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of Van der Waals forces?

    <p>They are very weak electrical dipole forces.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The process of __________ involves complex formation where a ligand surrounds a metal ion.

    <p>chelation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of bonding is typically responsible for the physical properties of water?

    <p>Hydrogen bonding</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In acid-base chemistry, coordinate covalent bonding is rarely observed.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Name an example of a molecule that forms a triple bond.

    <p>Hydrogen cyanide (HCN)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When ligands coordinate with a metal ion, they can form __________ compounds.

    <p>coordination</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a feature of ligands?

    <p>They are always neutral molecules.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the type of bonding with its example:

    <p>Carbon Dioxide = Double covalent bond Hydrogen Cyanide = Triple bond Hydrogen Bond = Between water molecules Van der Waals = Between nonpolar molecules like benzene</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary use of penicillamine?

    <p>Improvement of copper excretion in Wilson's disease</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Deferoxamine mesylate can be administered orally.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the typical components of products used for treating diarrhea?

    <p>An adsorbent-protective, an antispasmodic, and possibly an antibacterial agent.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Penicillamine capsules are official in the __________.

    <p>U.S. Pharmacopeia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the oxidation state of chromium in the complex [Cr(CN)6]3-?

    <p>+3</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following substances with their uses:

    <p>Activated charcoal = Binding non-polar substances Bismuth salts = Reducing irritation in the gastrointestinal tract Kaolin = Adsorbent for toxins Deferoxamine = Chelating agent for iron toxicity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Chelating agents can be used to treat poisoning from heavy metals such as mercury and arsenic.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the magnetic moment (MM) for the Fe(III) complex with six water units?

    <p>6</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following agents is known for treating gold dermatitis?

    <p>Penicillamine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Calcium Disodium Ethylenediaminetetra acetate (EDTA) is primarily used to treat __________ poisoning.

    <p>lead</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Chemical adsorption typically involves weak Van der Waals forces.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can contribute to the effectiveness of an adsorbent?

    <p>Surface area and porosity, molecular polarity, and pH sensitivity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of hybridization occurs in the Fe(III) complex when water molecules replace cyanato ligands?

    <p>outer orbital hybridization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The primary component of bismuth-containing products used for diarrhea is __________.

    <p>bismuth salts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Dimercaprol can be used to treat poisoning from iron and cadmium.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main reason CN- ligands result in a lower magnetic moment in Fe(III) complexes?

    <p>They repel electrons in the 3d orbitals, forcing them to pair.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following types of adsorption with their characteristics:

    <p>Physical adsorption = Weak Van der Waals forces and reversible Chemical adsorption = Strong chemical bonds and may be irreversible</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key risk associated with diarrhea in young or elderly patients?

    <p>Dehydration and electrolyte imbalances</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The usual route of administration for disodium edetate is through __________ injection.

    <p>intravenous</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Deferoxamine has a strong affinity for ferrous ions.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which chelating agent is used to increase urine alkalinity during therapy?

    <p>Sodium bicarbonate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following chelating agents with their primary uses:

    <p>EDTA = Treatment of lead poisoning Dimercaprol = Treatment of arsenic poisoning Penicillamine = Treatment of copper accumulation Disodium edetate = Management of hypercalcemia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of adsorbent-protectives in gastrointestinal treatment?

    <p>To adsorb toxins, bacteria, and viruses while protecting the intestinal mucosa.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Adsorption is a process where a substance adheres to the __________ of another substance.

    <p>surface</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The pH of an aqueous solution of Calcium Disodium Edetate is between 6.5 and 8.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of agents are used in Benedict’s and Fehling’s solutions to stabilize copper(II) ions?

    <p>Chelating agents</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Penicillamine is characterized as having a characteristic __________ odor.

    <p>slight</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which formula represents the complex formed when Cr(III) ion complexes with six cyanato groups?

    <p>[Cr(CN)6]3-</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the actions of bismuth salts when used as antidiarrheals?

    <p>They adsorb toxins and bacteria.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Bismuth subnitrate is soluble in water.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What compound is formed when intestinal hydrogen sulfide acts upon bismuth salts?

    <p>Bismuth sulfide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Bismuth sub carbonate is commonly used as an _______.

    <p>antacid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main use of bismuth subnitrate?

    <p>Mild astringent-protective in Milk of Bismuth</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Activated charcoal is effective in binding large organic molecules.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the approximate formula of Bismuth Sub carbonate?

    <p>[(BiO)₂CO₃]·H₂O</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Kaolin binds toxins and bacteria through both _______ and chemical adsorption.

    <p>physical</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How is Bismuth Sub carbonate typically dissolved?

    <p>In nitric acid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The prolonged use of laxatives can lead to dependence on laxatives.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of the interaction between tragacanth and bismuth subnitrate?

    <p>Incompatibility, forms hard mass</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following compounds with their usage:

    <p>Bismuth Subsalicylate = Treats diarrhea Activated Charcoal = Antidote in poisoning Kaolin = Adsorbent for toxins Bismuth Subnitrate = Mild astringent-protective</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Saline cathartics are agents that _______ evacuation from the bowels.

    <p>quicken and increase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What interaction occurs when bismuth subnitrate interacts with tragacanth?

    <p>Precipitation as a hard mass</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the uses of zinc chloride in lower concentrations (0.5 to 2%)?

    <p>Nasal spray for sinus treatment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Aluminum Hydroxy chloride is more soluble in water than aluminum chloride.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of action does zinc chloride exhibit that aids in tissue sloughing and scar tissue formation?

    <p>Escharotic Action</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Aluminum chloride was initially used as an antiperspirant but was too irritating and could damage __________.

    <p>clothing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following compounds with their characteristics:

    <p>Aluminum Hydroxy chloride = Less irritating and commonly used in antiperspirants Zinc chloride = Acts as a powerful protein precipitant Zinc oxychloride = Used in some dental cements Hydrochloric acid = Result of hydrolysis of aluminum chloride</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of laxative acts by local irritation on the intestinal tract to increase peristalsis?

    <p>Stimulant laxatives</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Bulk-forming laxatives are primarily composed of digestible polysaccharides.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main purpose of emollient laxatives?

    <p>To facilitate the passage of fecal material or to soften stools</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Saline cathartics increase the ______ load of the gastrointestinal tract.

    <p>osmotic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT classified as a stimulant laxative?

    <p>Psyllium seed</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Saline cathartics can be used without the risk of side effects for long periods.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Name one protective agent used in pharmaceuticals.

    <p>Zinc oxide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The main lubricant laxative used is ______.

    <p>mineral oil</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the laxative type with its function:

    <p>Stimulant laxatives = Local irritation on intestinal tract Bulk-forming laxatives = Increase bulk to stimulate peristalsis Emollient laxatives = Soften stools or lubricate feces Saline cathartics = Increase osmotic load</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which saline cathartic is most commonly used?

    <p>Sodium phosphate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Topical compounds primarily act systemically once absorbed into the bloodstream.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an example of a common side effect of magnesium salts when used as cathartics?

    <p>CNS depressant effect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Protective agents are typically ______ and chemically ______.

    <p>insoluble, inert</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following laxatives is recognized as a stool softener?

    <p>D-octyl sodium sulfosuccinate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Protective agents can absorb moisture from the skin's surface.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary use of Hydrogen Peroxide Solution?

    <p>As a mild oxidizing antiseptic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Sodium hypochlorite solutions are safe for use on tissues without any precautions.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of mechanism does protein precipitation involve?

    <p>Interaction with metallic ions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Hydrogen peroxide can act as both a __________ and a reducing agent.

    <p>oxidizing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match each chemical with its primary property or use:

    <p>Hydrogen peroxide = Mild oxidizing antiseptic Sodium hypochlorite = Household bleach Cu(II) = Protein precipitant Catalase = Enzyme that decomposes H2O2</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following ions can catalyze the decomposition of Hydrogen Peroxide?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The oxidation state of oxygen in the peroxide ion is +2.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is released when hydrogen peroxide undergoes reduction?

    <p>Molecular oxygen.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The complexation with metal ions results in a radical change in the properties of the __________.

    <p>protein</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which type of media is the reaction of hydrogen peroxide most efficient?

    <p>Acidic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Sodium hypochlorite can be diluted with an equal amount of water for safe use.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the pH of diluted sodium hypochlorite solution?

    <p>It is adjusted to 8.3 or lower.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Sodium hypochlorite solutions are strong __________ agents.

    <p>oxidizing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the mechanism of action for sodium hypochlorite solutions as antiseptics?

    <p>Liberating chlorine and oxidizing action</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Metal ions interact specifically with microbial proteins only.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary chemical structure of talc?

    <p>Hydrated magnesium silicate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Talc is soluble in water.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one primary use of zinc oxide?

    <p>Mild astringent and weak antimicrobial compound</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Zinc oxide forms __________ when it reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid.

    <p>zinc chloride</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the topical agents with their properties:

    <p>Talc = Lubricating protective dusting powder Zinc Oxide = Mild astringent and weak antimicrobial compound Calamine = Soothing and adsorbent Antiseptic = Prevents infection by inhibiting microorganisms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What gives calamine its pink color?

    <p>Ferric oxide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Calamine is completely soluble in water.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the mechanism of action of inorganic antimicrobial agents?

    <p>Oxidation, halogenation, and protein precipitation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The process of completely removing all microorganisms is known as __________.

    <p>sterilization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following antimicrobial terms with their definitions:

    <p>Antiseptic = Kills or inhibits microorganisms on living tissues Germicide = Kills microorganisms outright Bacteriostat = Inhibits bacterial growth without killing them Disinfectant = Kills microorganisms on inanimate objects</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Zinc oxide can gradually absorb __________ from the air.

    <p>Carbon dioxide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Calamine lotion is used for its soothing properties.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of reaction occurs to form calamine from zinc oxide and ferric oxide?

    <p>Combination reaction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    An example of a __________ is a substance that kills funguses.

    <p>fungicide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of MgO does talc generally contain?

    <p>28.1% to 31.2%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Talc is the softest mineral known.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a primary use of Iodine Tincture?

    <p>Topical antiseptic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Iodine Solution contains alcohol as a solvent.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main antimicrobial agent in both Iodine Solution and Iodine Tincture?

    <p>iodine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Iodine Tincture may be used to disinfect __________.

    <p>drinking water</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one reason why metal spatulas should not be used to handle iodine?

    <p>Iodine is corrosive to metals.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Silver Nitrate is poorly soluble in water.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Name the condition that can result from prolonged use of silver preparations.

    <p>argyria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Astringents can cause protein __________ on the surface of cells.

    <p>precipitation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characteristic odorous component does Iodine Tincture contain?

    <p>Alcohol</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following compounds with their primary function:

    <p>Iodine Tincture = Topical antiseptic agent Silver Nitrate = Antibacterial agent Aluminum Chloride = Astringent and mild antiseptic Povidone-Iodine = Solubilizing agent for iodine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Iodine primarily acts as a strong reducing agent.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to silver nitrate crystals when exposed to light?

    <p>They become gray or grayish black.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The oxidizing action of iodine in aqueous solution is believed to be mediated through the formation of __________ acid.

    <p>hypoiodous</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which concentration of Silver Nitrate is commonly used for eye treatment in newborns?

    <p>1%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Higher concentrations of silver nitrate are less irritant to tissues.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the charge of a proton?

    <p>Positive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Electrons have a mass greater than neutrons.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the four quantum numbers that describe atomic orbitals?

    <p>Principal quantum number, Suborbital quantum number, Magnetic quantum number, Spin quantum number</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The number of protons in an atom determines its atomic ______.

    <p>number</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the particles with their characteristics:

    <p>Proton = Positive charge, mass of 1.672 x 10-24 Neutron = No charge, mass of 1.675 x 10-24 Electron = Negative charge, mass of 9.107 x 10-28 Atomic mass = Sum of the masses of protons and neutrons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which orbital is described by l = 1?

    <p>p orbital</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The Pauli exclusion principle states that two electrons in the same orbital can have the same spin.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the Aufbau principle state regarding electron configuration?

    <p>Electrons are added one at a time to the lowest energy orbitals available.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of bonding involves two pi bonds between atoms?

    <p>Triple bonding</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Hydrogen bonding is a stronger interaction than covalent bonding.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Name one property that is common among ligands.

    <p>Possession of at least one nonbonded pair of electrons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Carbon dioxide, CO2, is an example of a __________ bonded molecule.

    <p>double</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the type of bond to its characteristic:

    <p>Coordinate covalent bond = Electrons come from a single atom Hydrogen bond = Weak interaction between a hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom Van der Waals forces = Weak electrical dipole forces Covalent bond = Electrons are shared between atoms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of hybridization does carbon exhibit in carbon dioxide?

    <p>sp</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Coordinate covalent bonds always involve the donation of an electron pair from both bonding atoms.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a chelate?

    <p>A ring structure formed when polydentate ligands coordinate with a metal ion.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The additional bonding species in a coordination compound are termed __________.

    <p>ligands</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their definitions:

    <p>Anionic ligands = Negatively charged ligands Monodentate ligands = Ligands that coordinate at one position Bidentate ligands = Ligands that coordinate at two positions Polydentate ligands = Ligands capable of binding at multiple positions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the stability of a ligand in a complex relate to its basicity?

    <p>More basic ligands tend to be more stable</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Van der Waals forces are stronger than hydrogen bonds.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of a nodal plane in covalent bonding?

    <p>A nodal plane indicates a region where no electron density is found.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The __________ is an attractive force that is significant in the liquid state of water.

    <p>hydrogen bonding</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of hybridization is associated with a linear molecule geometry?

    <p>sp</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ionic bonding involves sharing a pair of electrons between two atoms.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the geometry associated with sp3 hybridized orbitals?

    <p>Tetrahedral</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The bond angle in a water (H2O) molecule is closer to __________ degrees.

    <p>104</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following types of bonds with their descriptions:

    <p>Ionic bond = Transfer of electrons Covalent bond = Sharing of electrons Sigma bond = Symmetrical about bond axis Pi bond = Electrons above and below bond axis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following elements typically exhibit sp2 hybridization?

    <p>Boron (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The octet theory of chemical bonding is always applicable to transition metals.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Name one type of covalent bond classification.

    <p>Sigma bond or Pi bond</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The __________ hybridization results in three equivalent orbitals arranged at 120° apart.

    <p>sp2</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following atomic orbitals with their hybridization types:

    <p>1s + 1p = sp 1s + 2p = sp2 1s + 3p = sp3</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement is true regarding sp hybridization?

    <p>It is found in Group II element compounds.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Covalent bonds can only be nonpolar.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what type of bonding do metals typically lose electrons?

    <p>Ionic bonding</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The shared pair of electrons in a __________ bond is found evenly distributed.

    <p>nonpolar covalent</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the complex formed by Cr(III) and six cyanato groups?

    <p>[Cr(CN)6]^(3-)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The magnetic moment (MM) of Fe(III) complexed with six water molecules is indicative of two unpaired electrons.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of hybridization occurs when six CN- ligands replace water in an Fe(III) complex?

    <p>outer orbital hybridization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    EDTA is primarily used in the treatment of heavy metal poisoning caused by __________.

    <p>lead</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following chelating agents with their uses:

    <p>EDTA = Lead poisoning treatment Dimercaprol = Arsenic poisoning treatment Penicillamine = Copper accumulation Disodium edetate = Hypercalcemic states</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of calcium disodium edetate?

    <p>Used to treat lead toxicity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Dimercaprol can be administered orally for heavy metal poisoning.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the chemical structure of Dimercaprol?

    <p>2,3-Dimercapto-1-propanol</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The formulation of __________ is contraindicated in iron poisoning due to renal toxicity.

    <p>Dimercaprol</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the limitations of using the disodium edetate form of EDTA?

    <p>Risk of hypocalcemia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Chelating agents are ineffective in the treatment of heavy metal poisonings.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main purpose of using chelating agents in analytical chemistry?

    <p>To solubilize metal ions and stabilize oxidation states.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which metal is NOT effectively treated with EDTA?

    <p>Mercury</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The magnetic moment of the Fe(III) complex with 6 CN- is indicative of __________ unpaired electron(s).

    <p>1</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which chelating agent is known for its strong affinity for calcium?

    <p>Calcium Disodium Edetate (EDTA)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the electronic configuration of chromium?

    <p>3d5 4s1</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Elements in Groups VIA and VIIA typically form cations.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes the process of ionization?

    <p>The loss of one or more electrons from an atom.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The periodic table arranges elements based on their atomic numbers and ________ configurations.

    <p>electron</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following elements with their corresponding atomic numbers:

    <p>Oxygen = 8 Bromine = 35 Copper = 29 Manganese = 25</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements is true regarding electronegativity?

    <p>It increases from left to right across a period.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Elements with half-filled d orbitals are more stable than those with fully filled d orbitals.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Name a common characteristic of ionic bonds.

    <p>Electrostatic interaction between charged ions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ________ effect diminishes the attractive force of the nucleus on valence electrons as we descend in a group.

    <p>shielding</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following bonds with their descriptions:

    <p>Covalent bond = Sharing of electron pairs Ionic bond = Transfer of electrons Polar covalent bond = Unequal sharing of electrons Coordinate covalent bond = Shared pair from one atom</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which elements are known as transition elements?

    <p>Elements between Group VIIB and IB</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Orbital hybridization creates orbitals with the same directional properties as the original atomic orbitals.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What configuration do sodium atoms adopt to represent their electron arrangement?

    <p>[Ne] 3s1</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The first 98 elements of the periodic table exist ________.

    <p>naturally</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'electropositivity' refer to?

    <p>The ability to lose electrons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which metal is NOT mentioned as being targeted by penicillamine for chelation?

    <p>Zinc</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Penicillamine capsules are typically administered intravenously.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary use of deferoxamine mesylate?

    <p>Treatment of acute iron toxicity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Penicillamine helps improve copper excretion in patients with __________ disease.

    <p>Wilson's</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following agents to their primary actions:

    <p>Penicillamine = Improves copper excretion Deferoxamine = Chelates iron Activated charcoal = Adsorbs toxins Bismuth salte = Reduces irritation in the gut</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about adsorption is true?

    <p>Physical adsorption occurs due to weak Van der Waals forces.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Activated charcoal has a low surface area and porosity.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What factor can influence the efficiency of adsorption?

    <p>pH</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Deferoxamine is produced naturally by __________ pilosus.

    <p>Streptomyces</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of bonding can result in irreversible adsorption?

    <p>Chemical adsorption</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Activated charcoal binds effectively to both polar and non-polar substances.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common treatment for chronic diarrhea?

    <p>Gastrointestinal protectives or adsorbents</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason that aluminum chlorides were replaced in commercial antiperspirants?

    <p>They caused irritation and clothing damage.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Zinc chloride solutions are neutral due to hydrolysis.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The increased bulk in the intestinal tract due to impaired absorption leads to __________.

    <p>diarrhea</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following gastrointestinal agents with their primary function:

    <p>Antispasmodics = Decrease peristalsis Adsorbent agents = Absorb toxins and bacteria Antibacterials = Treat infections Protectives = Coat the intestinal mucosa</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the two types of aluminum hydroxy chlorides mentioned?

    <p>monohydroxy chloride and dihydroxy chloride</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Zinc chloride can act as a __________, causing tissue sloughing and aiding in scar formation.

    <p>escharotic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is NOT a cause of acute diarrhea?

    <p>Chronic inflammatory conditions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following uses of zinc chloride with their descriptions:

    <p>Astringent &amp; Antiseptic = Strong protein precipitant Nasal Spray &amp; Sinus Treatment = Applied to mucous membranes Dentin Desensitizer = Used on teeth for sensitivity Escharotic Action = Aids in tissue sloughing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary action of bismuth sub carbonate when used as an antacid?

    <p>To form a protective barrier in the intestines</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Bismuth salts are water-soluble and promote significant clinical benefits when used as antidiarrheals.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What chemical reaction occurs when intestinal hydrogen sulfide acts on bismuth salts?

    <p>2Bi3+ + 3H2S → Bi2S3 + 6H+</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Bismuth subnitrate is assayed in terms of __________.

    <p>bismuth trioxide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following bismuth compounds with their classifications:

    <p>Bismuth Subgallate = Nonofficial compound Bismuth Subsalicylate = Nonofficial compound Bismuth Ammonium Citrate = Nonofficial compound Bismuth Hydroxide = Official compound</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the physical form of bismuth sub carbonate?

    <p>White or pale yellowish white powder</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Bismuth sub carbonate dissolves completely in alcohol.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the approximate formula of bismuth subnitrate?

    <p>[Bi(OH)2NO3]4·BiO(OH)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Kaolin binds toxins and bacteria through both __________ and __________ adsorption.

    <p>physical, chemical</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following substances with their key characteristics:

    <p>Activated Charcoal = Used as an antidote in poisoning Kaolin = Used for mild diarrhea Bismuth Sub carbonate = Functions as an astringent Sodium Biphosphate = Overcomes tragacanth incompatibility</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the stool when bismuth-containing preparations are administered orally?

    <p>It turns black</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Laxatives should only be used for long-term therapy to maintain regular bowel movements.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main use of bismuth subnitrate in Milk of Bismuth?

    <p>It functions as a mild astringent-protective.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Constipation is defined as the __________ or __________ evacuation of feces.

    <p>infrequent, difficult</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which phosphate can help stabilize tragacanth in the presence of bismuth?

    <p>Trisodium phosphate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of laxative acts by local irritation on the intestinal tract and increases peristaltic activity?

    <p>Stimulant laxatives</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Emollient laxatives only facilitate the passage of compacted fecal material.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Name one example of a bulk-forming laxative.

    <p>Psyllium seed</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Saline cathartics increase the __________ load of the gastrointestinal tract.

    <p>osmotic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following laxative types with their actions:

    <p>Stimulant laxatives = Irritate intestinal tract Bulk-forming laxatives = Increase stool bulk Emollient laxatives = Soften stools Saline cathartics = Increase osmotic load</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which laxative is primarily used as a lubricant?

    <p>Mineral oil</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Sodium-containing saline cathartics are safe for long-term use in patients on low-sodium diets.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main effect of magnesium salts when absorbed in the body?

    <p>Central nervous system depressant effect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Dried Sodium Phosphate is used as a saline cathartic in __________ Sodium Phosphate.

    <p>Effervescent</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the saline cathartics with their properties:

    <p>Sodium Biphosphate = Colorless crystals or white powder Sodium Phosphate = Alkaline solutions Dried Sodium Phosphate = Freely soluble in water Sodium Tartrate = Provides lemon-like flavor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of the ideal protective agent used in topical compounds?

    <p>Insoluble and chemically inert</p> Signup and view all the answers

    All topical compounds are absorbed into the bloodstream.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What property limits absorption of protective agents through the skin?

    <p>Insolubility</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Protective agents reduce mechanical __________ on the skin's surface.

    <p>friction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary component found in talc?

    <p>Hydrous magnesium silicate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Zinc oxide is soluble in water and alcohol.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of heating zinc oxide to high temperatures?

    <p>It turns yellow and returns to white upon cooling.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Calamine is a mixture of zinc oxide and a small proportion of __________ oxide.

    <p>ferric</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the topical agents with their primary uses:

    <p>Talc = Lubricating and protective dusting powder Zinc Oxide = Mild astringent and weak antimicrobial Calamine = Soothing and protective topical agent Soapstone = Used as a decorative stone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of antimicrobial agents?

    <p>To prevent or reduce infections</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Calamine has antimicrobial properties due to the presence of ferric oxide.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the chemical formula for zinc oxide?

    <p>ZnO</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Talc has very low ________ properties.

    <p>adsorptive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following types of antimicrobial agents with their definitions:

    <p>Antiseptic = Inhibits the growth of microorganisms Germicide = Kills microorganisms outright Bacteriostat = Inhibits bacteria from multiplying Disinfectant = Kills microorganisms on inanimate objects</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What method can mimic the natural geological conditions for talc formation?

    <p>Hydrothermal method</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Zinc oxide can react with dilute acids to form water-soluble products.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of the hydrophobic nature of talc?

    <p>It prevents moisture absorption, offering protective properties.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The antimicrobial action of zinc oxide is due to the release of a small amount of zinc ion from __________ in the acidic moisture on the skin.

    <p>hydrolysis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary use of hydrogen peroxide solution?

    <p>As a mild oxidizing antiseptic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Sodium hypochlorite solutions are effective only when used in high concentrations.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of reaction occurs when hydrogen peroxide is decomposed by the enzyme catalase?

    <p>Decomposition to water and oxygen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Sodium hypochlorite is commonly recognized as a type of _______.

    <p>bleach</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following solutions with their primary uses:

    <p>Hydrogen Peroxide Solution = Mild oxidizing antiseptic Sodium Hypochlorite Solution = Disinfectant and laundry bleach Diluted Sodium Hypochlorite = Antiseptic for pus-forming wounds Hydrogen Peroxide Gargle = Treatment of bacterial infections in throat</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which metallic ion is known as an effective protein precipitant?

    <p>Cu(II)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Hydrogen peroxide decomposes more readily in the presence of light.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to hydrogen peroxide when it acts as a reducing agent?

    <p>It evolves molecular oxygen.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The chemical formula for sodium hypochlorite is ______.

    <p>NaOCl</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following conditions with their effects on hydrogen peroxide:

    <p>Exposure to light = Rapid decomposition Presence of transition metals = Catalyzes decomposition High purity solutions = Increased stability Acidic media = Increased oxidizing capacity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the pH adjustment used for in the diluted sodium hypochlorite solution?

    <p>To reduce caustic action on tissues</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Both hydrogen peroxide and sodium hypochlorite can serve as disinfectants.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Describe the role of catalase in the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide.

    <p>Catalase speeds up the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When sodium hypochlorite reacts with water, it forms ______ acid.

    <p>hypochlorous</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary ingredient common to both Iodine Solution and Iodine Tincture?

    <p>Iodine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Iodine Tincture is less irritating to open tissues than Iodine Solution.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is formed when iodine reacts with iron?

    <p>Ferrous iodide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Iodine solutions are often used to disinfect __________.

    <p>drinking water</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following solutions with their primary use:

    <p>Iodine Solution = Application to wounds Iodine Tincture = Disinfecting drinking water Silver Nitrate = Antibacterial agent Aluminum Chloride = Astringent</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What adverse effect is caused by extended use of silver preparations?

    <p>Argyria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The primary action of silver ions is selective for bacterial proteins.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What concentration range is typically used for antibacterial silver nitrate solutions?

    <p>0.5% to 1.0%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Iodine is known for its property as a mild __________ agent in aqueous solutions.

    <p>oxidizing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which chemical reaction demonstrates the formation of a complex with iodine?

    <p>2Na2S2O3 + I2 ⟶ Na2S4O6 + 2NaI</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Aluminum chloride acts as a Lewis acid.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What main property defines an astringent?

    <p>Causes protein precipitation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The range of activity of silver ions includes __________, astringent, irritant, and corrosive properties.

    <p>antibacterial</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of adding two drops of Silver Nitrate Ophthalmic Solution to the eyes of newborn babies?

    <p>As a prophylactic measure against gonococcal ophthalmia neonatorum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following astringent products with their characteristics:

    <p>Zinc salts = Antiperspirant properties Aluminum salts = Stops bleeding from small cuts Zirconium salts = Reduces sweat secretion Calcium salts = Corrosive action at high concentrations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Electronic Structure of Atoms

    • Atoms consist of a nucleus surrounded by electrons.
    • The nucleus contains protons (positively charged) and neutrons (no charge).
    • Electrons occupy specific regions of space called orbitals.
    • The number of protons in a neutral atom is equal to the number of electrons.
    • The sum of protons and neutrons determines the atomic mass of an element.
    • The number of protons is called the atomic number.

    Atomic Orbitals

    • Atomic orbitals are described by four quantum numbers:
      • Principal quantum number (n): Defines the energy level of the electron. Higher values of n correspond to higher energy levels and greater distances from the nucleus.
      • Azimuthal quantum number (l): Represents the shape of the orbital. This determines the orbital's angular momentum.
        • l = 0 is an s orbital (spherical)
        • l = 1 is a p orbital (dumbbell shaped)
        • l = 2 is a d orbital
        • l = 3 is an f orbital
      • Magnetic quantum number (ml): Specifies the spatial orientation of the orbital.
      • Spin quantum number (ms): Represents the intrinsic angular momentum of the electron, which is quantized and can be either spin up (ms = +1/2) or spin down (ms = -1/2).

    Electron Configuration

    • The Aufbau principle states that electrons are added to orbitals in order of increasing energy.
    • Pauli exclusion principle: no two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four quantum numbers.
      • A maximum of two electrons can occupy a single orbital, and they must have opposite spins.
    • Hund's rules:
      • Lower energy orbitals are filled before higher energy orbitals.
      • Electrons will occupy degenerate orbitals individually with parallel spins before pairing up in the same orbital.
    • Stable configurations can occur when d orbitals are half-filled or completely filled, such as in Chromium and Copper.
    • Electron configurations can be written using the inert gas core as a shorthand, denoting the preceding noble gas configuration.

    Ionization

    • Ionization is the process of an atom losing one or more electrons.
    • This results in a positively charged ion called a cation.
    • The electrons lost are typically the most loosely held ones.
    • The electronic structure of the ion may not reflect the level of electron loss, especially with transition metals.

    Periodic Table

    • The periodic table organizes chemical elements by increasing atomic number, electron configuration, and recurring chemical properties.
    • Rows are called periods and columns are called groups.
    • Some groups have specific names, such as halogens and noble gases.
    • The filling of s and p orbitals corresponds to the eight main groups.
    • Transitions metals occur between groups IIA and IIIA, during the filling of d orbitals.
    • The lanthanides and actinides are located below the main table, corresponding to the filling of f orbitals.

    Electronegativity

    • Electronegativity measures an element's attraction for electrons.
    • Electronegativity increases from left to right across a period and from bottom to top within a group (excluding Group VIIIA).
    • Electropositivity is the opposite of electronegativity and varies in the opposite direction.

    Electronic Structure of Molecules

    • Three major forces govern molecular formation:
      • Coulombic attraction between electrons and nuclei
      • Number of valence electrons
      • Orbital distribution
    • There are two main types of chemical bonds:
      • Covalent bonds: involve the sharing of electron pairs.
        • Nonpolar covalent bonds involve equal sharing between atoms.
        • Polar covalent bonds involve unequal sharing, where the electron density shifts towards the more electronegative atom.
      • Ionic bonds: formed by the transfer of electrons from an electropositive atom to an electronegative atom, resulting in electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions.

    Orbital Hybridization

    • Orbital hybridization involves mixing atomic orbitals to form new, degenerate hybrid orbitals that differ in spatial orientation and directional properties.
    • The number of hybrid orbitals formed is equal to the number of atomic orbitals involved in the hybridization.
    • There are three main types of hybrid orbitals:
      • sp: Linear geometry, forms two sp orbitals oriented at 180 degrees.
      • sp2: Trigonal planar geometry, forms three sp2 orbitals oriented at 120 degrees.
      • sp3: Tetrahedral geometry, forms four sp3 orbitals oriented towards the corners of a tetrahedron.

    Types of Bonding Interactions

    • Ionic bonding: an electrostatic interaction between oppositely charged ions.
      • Many stable ions have inert gas valence shell structures (octet rule).
      • Typically occurs between electropositive metals and electronegative nonmetals.
    • Covalent bonding: involves sharing of electron pairs between atoms.
      • Nonpolar covalent bonds involve equal sharing.
      • Polar covalent bonds involve unequal sharing, leading to partial charges.
    • Coordinate covalent bonding: Both electrons in the bond originate from the same atom.
      • The donor atom provides the electron pair for the covalent bond.
      • The acceptor atom has an empty orbital that can overlap with the donor orbital.
    • Hydrogen bonding: A weak secondary interaction between a partially positive hydrogen atom (bonded to a highly electronegative atom) and a nonbonding electron pair on a neighboring electronegative atom.
      • Plays a key role in many physical and chemical properties of water, such as its high boiling point.
    • Van der Waals forces: Weak electrical dipole forces that arise due to temporary electron clouds distortions.
      • These are the only forces holding nonpolar molecules together.

    Resonance

    • Resonance describes delocalization of electrons, where a molecule can be represented by multiple resonance structures (canonical structures).
    • The actual electron distribution is a hybrid of all contributing resonance structures.

    Coordination Compounds and Complexation

    • Metal cations can form coordination compounds by binding to additional anions or neutral molecules known as ligands.
    • Ligands bond directly to the metal cation, following a specific coordination number that represents the maximum number of ligands a metal ion can accommodate.
    • The arrangement of ligands around the metal ion gives the complex a specific geometry.

    Properties of Ligands

    • Ligands are generally anions or neutral molecules, not atoms.
    • They possess at least one nonbonded electron pair for forming coordinate covalent bonds with the metal ion.
    • The stability of complexes depends on the ligand type. More basic ligands generally form more stable complexes.
    • Ligands can be classified by the number of positions they can coordinate with a metal (monodentate, bidentate, etc.).

    Chelation

    • When polydentate ligands coordinate with a metal ion, they form a ring structure called a chelate.
    • Chelates with five-, six-, or seven-membered rings are generally the most stable.

    Bonding in Complexes

    • The metal's (n-1)d, ns, and np orbitals can hybridize to form six bonding orbitals that point towards the ligands.
    • The geometry of the complex is determined by the hybridization and coordination number.

    Complex Formation and Chelating Agents

    • Complexes are formed when a central metal ion is surrounded by ligands, which are molecules or ions that have a lone pair of electrons.
    • The coordination number is the number of ligands that are directly attached to the metal ion.
    • In complexes with six ligands, metal ions with three or less electrons in their d orbitals will form d2sp3 hybrid orbitals. This leads to six equivalent hybrid orbitals that bond with the six ligands, forming octahedral complexes with examples like [Cr(CN)6] -3.
    • Metal ions with more than 3 d electrons will undergo a configuration change to achieve a lower spin configuration. This can be measured experimentally by analyzing the magnetic moment of the complex, which is the result of unpaired electrons.
    • The d2sp3 hybridization is called "inner orbital hybridization" when 3d orbitals are involved, while the hybridization involving 4d orbitals (4d,4s, 4p) is referred to as "outer orbital hybridization."
    • Chelating agents are organic compounds that bind to metal ions, forming stable complexes.
    • Chelating agents have applications in:
      • Analytical chemistry: used to determine metal concentrations by titration.
      • Solubilization of metal ions: increase solubility and stabilize the oxidation state.
      • Pharmaceutical chemistry: used as preservatives in preparations containing hydrogen peroxide, and for treating heavy metal poisonings and metabolic disorders.

    Chelating Agents

    • Calcium Disodium Edetate (EDTA)

      • A white crystalline granule used primarily for lead poisoning treatment.
      • Forms an insoluble complex with lead that is excreted by the kidneys.
      • EDTA has a strong affinity for calcium, therefore, the disodium calcium form is preferred to avoid hypocalcemia.
      • Also used for poisoning due to copper, nickel, cadmium, zinc, chromium, and manganese.
      • Poorly absorbed orally, given intravenously.
      • Intramuscular administration is used for diagnosing metal poisonings.

    • Disodium Edetate:

      • White crystalline powder soluble in water.
      • Chelates the same metals as the calcium disodium form.
      • Limited by the risk of hypocalcemia.
      • Used in hypercalcemic states (high serum calcium).
      • Can be helpful for occlusive vascular disease and cardiac arrhythmias associated with high blood calcium levels.
      • Not effective in dissolving urinary calculi.
      • Administered intravenously.

    • Dimercaprol (BAL)

      • A colorless or almost colorless liquid with a disagreeable odor.
      • Used to treat heavy metal poisoning (primarily arsenic, mercury, and gold) by competing with enzymes for these metals, forming less toxic complexes that can be excreted.
      • Contraindicated in poisonings due to iron, cadmium, or selenium because the resulting complexes are more toxic.
      • Dimercaprol-metal chelates dissociate in acidic media, therefore, urine needs to be alkalinized to prevent free metal release.
      • Administered intramuscularly.

    • Penicillamine:

      • A white or off-white crystalline powder that chelates copper, iron, mercury, lead, gold, and other metals.
      • Primarily used to improve copper excretion in patients with Wilson’s disease.
      • Resistant to metabolic inactivation by amino acid oxidase.
      • Used in treatment of gold dermatitis for patients on chronic gold therapy.
      • Administered orally.

    • Deferoxamine Mesylate:

      • A white crystalline lyophilized powder soluble in water.
      • Produced naturally by Streptomyces pilosus as a ferric [Fe(III)]complex.
      • Has a particular affinity for ferric ions, forming stable water-soluble octahedral complexes.
      • Weak affinity for ferrous ions and other divalent metal ions.
      • Used with other drugs and procedures for treating acute iron toxicity.
      • Administered intramuscularly or intravenously.

    Gastrointestinal Protectives, Adsorbents, and Cathartics

    • Gastrointestinal agents used to treat mild diarrhea.
    • Diarrhea is a symptom of impaired digestion or absorption leading to increased intestinal bulk, increased peristalsis, and expulsion of intestinal contents.
    • Diarrhea can be acute or chronic.
    • Acute diarrhea can be caused by bacteria, chemicals, drugs, allergies, and disease.
    • Chronic diarrhea can result from surgery, carcinomas, inflammatory conditions, and absorptive defects.
    • Dehydration and electrolyte imbalances are serious complications of diarrhea, particularly in young children and elderly individuals.
    • Antidiarrheal agents treat the symptoms and sometimes the cause, but not the complications.
    • Most antidiarrheal products combine adsorbent-protectives, antispasmodics, and sometimes antibacterial agents.
    • The ideal antispasmodic agent should act directly on the smooth muscles of the gut to reduce peristalsis and increase segmentation.
    • Antibacterials are only effective if there's an actual infection or during outbreaks caused by known microorganisms.

    Mechanism of Adsorption

    • Adsorption is a process where a substance (adsorbate) adheres to the surface of another substance (adsorbent).

    • In gastrointestinal protectives and adsorbents, substances like activated charcoal, kaolin, and certain clays act as adsorbents that bind toxins, gases, and bacteria in the gut.

    • Types of Adsorption:*

    • Physical Adsorption: Based on weak, non-specific Van der Waals forces. Reversible and doesn't involve chemical bonding.

    • Chemical Adsorption: Involves stronger chemical bonds. Can be irreversible and involves electron exchange or sharing.

    • Factors Affecting Adsorption:*

    • Surface Area and Porosity: Adsorbents with high surface areas and porous structures, like activated charcoal, adsorb more substances.

    • Polarity: Adsorption is more effective when the adsorbent and adsorbate have similar polarities.

    • pH Sensitivity: The surrounding pH can affect the efficiency of adsorption, as some adsorbents become soluble depending on the pH level.

    Bismuth-Containing Products

    • Bismuth salts are used as antidiarrheals and antacids.

    • Bismuth subcarbonate has been used as an antacid.

    • Soluble bismuth cation exerts a mild astringent and antiseptic action.

    • Bismuth salts react with intestinal hydrogen sulfide to form bismuth sulfide, resulting in black stools.

    • They provide dual action: adsorbing toxins and bacteria & forming a protective barrier in the intestines.

    • Bi3+ + 3H2S → Bi2S3 (black precipitate) + 6H+

    • 1. Bismuth Subnitrate, N.F.XIII ([Bi(OH)2NO3]4·BiO(OH))*

    • A white, slightly hygroscopic powder with an acid reaction.

    • Insoluble in water and alcohol, soluble in hydrochloric or nitric acid.

    • Assayed in terms of bismuth trioxide (Bi2O3).

    • Incompatible with tragacanth, but the difficulty can be overcome by using sodium or trisodium phosphates.

    • Can inhibit pepsin.

    • Used as a component of Milk of Bismuth.

    Milk of Bismuth

    • Contains bismuth hydroxide and bismuth sub carbonate in suspension in water.

    • Classified as an astringent and antacid.

    • 2. Bismuth Subcarbonate, U.S.P.XVIII ([BiO) CO ] ·H O) ₂ ₃ ₂ ₂*

    • A white or pale yellowish white odorless, tasteless powder.

    • Stable in air but affected by light.

    • Insoluble in water and alcohol, soluble in nitric acid and hydrochloric acid with effervescence.

    • Assayed in terms of bismuth trioxide (Bi2O3).

    Nonofficial Bismuth Compounds

    • Bismuth Subgallate
    • Bismuth Subsalicylate
    • Bismuth Ammonium Citrate

    Activated Clays and Other Adsorbents

    • Used for industrial adsorption and clinically for mild short-duration diarrhea.

    • 1. Kaolin*

    • A native hydrated aluminum silicate powder.

    • Binds toxins and bacteria through both physical and chemical adsorption.

    • Insoluble in water, cold diluted acids, and alkali hydroxide solutions.

    • Typically combined with pectin, forming Kaopectate® and Kao-Con®.

    • Can interfere with the absorption of lincomycin.

    • 2. Activated Charcoal*

    • Used as an adsorbent for diarrhea and as an antidote in certain poisoning.

    • Works primarily through physical adsorption.

    • Highly porous and effective in binding large organic molecules like bacterial toxins, chemicals, and drugs.

    Saline Cathartics

    • Agents that increase intestinal evacuation.
    • Laxatives are mild cathartics.
    • Properly used for:
      • Easing defecation in patients with hemorrhoids or rectal disorders.
      • Avoiding blood pressure increases during defecation for patients with hypertension.
      • Relief of acute constipation.
      • Removing solid material from the intestinal tract for x-ray studies.
    • Prolonged use can lead to dependence and disruption of bowel rhythm.
    • Constipation is infrequent or difficult defecation, caused by various factors including diet, drugs, and intestinal dysfunction.

    Types of Laxatives

    • Stimulant laxatives:

      • Act by irritating the intestinal tract to increase peristalsis.
      • Examples: phenolphthalein, aloin, cascara extract, rhubarb extract, senna extract, podophyllin, castor oil, 1,8-dihydroxyanthraquinone (danthron), oxyphenisatin, bisacodyl, and calomel.

    • Bulk-forming laxatives:

      • Made from cellulose and other nondigestible polysaccharides.
      • Swell when wet to stimulate peristalsis.
      • Examples: psyllium seed, methyl cellulose, sodium carboxymethylcellulose, and karaya gum.

    • Emollient laxatives:

      • Act as lubricants or stool softeners to facilitate passage of compacted fecal material.
      • Examples: Mineral oil (lubricant) and d-octyl sodium sulfosuccinate (stool softener).

    • Saline cathartics:

      • Increase the osmotic load of the gastrointestinal tract.
      • Made of poorly absorbed anions and sometimes cations.
      • Increased osmotic pressure draws fluids into the intestines, increasing bulk and stimulating peristalsis.
      • Examples of poorly absorbed anions: biphosphate (H2PO4-), phosphate (HPO4 2-), sulfate, and tartrate.
      • Saline cathartics must be taken with large amounts of water to avoid dehydration and excessive hypertonicity in the stomach.
      • Relatively free of side effects when used for short periods.

    Saline Cathartics

    • Sodium Biphosphate, Sodium Phosphate, Sodium Sulfate, and Potassium Sodium Tartrate are saline cathartics.
    • Patients on low-sodium diets should avoid these.
    • Sodium Biphosphate is a urinary acidifier with a neutral pH.
    • Sodium Phosphate is frequently employed as a saline cathartic in Fleet Enema and Phospho-Soda.
    • Dried Sodium Phosphate is a nearly anhydrous white powder that readily absorbs moisture.
    • It is used as a saline cathartic in Effervescent Sodium Phosphate, a mixture of sodium bicarbonate, tartaric acid, and citric acid.

    Topical Agents

    • Topical compounds are applied to body surfaces to protect areas from irritation, particularly of mechanical origin.
    • Protectives are substances used for this purpose.
    • They are generally insoluble and inert to prevent absorption through the skin and interactions with tissue.

    Talc

    • Talc is a hydrous magnesium silicate commonly used as a lubricating and protective dusting powder.
    • It can be used to prevent irritation due to friction, and to protect areas from further irritation.
    • It is unctuous, adheres readily to the skin, and is free from grittiness.
    • It is the softest mineral known.
    • It is odorless, tasteless, and insoluble in water, dilute acids, and dilute bases.

    Zinc Oxide

    • Zinc Oxide is a very fine, odorless, amorphous, white or yellowish white powder.
    • It is insoluble in water and alcohol, but reacts with dilute acids and ammonium compounds to form water-soluble products.
    • It acts as a mild astringent and a weak antimicrobial compound, reducing skin irritation and providing a protective barrier.

    Calamine

    • Calamine is zinc oxide with a small proportion of ferric oxide, giving it a pink color.
    • It is insoluble in water but soluble in mineral acids.
    • It is used in dusting powders, ointments, and lotions for its soothing, absorbent, and protective properties.

    Antimicrobial Agents

    • Antimicrobial agents are used for the prevention and/or reduction of infection caused by microorganisms.
    • Antiseptics are used on living tissues to prevent infection.
    • Germicides directly kill microorganisms, e.g., bactericides, fungicides, amebicides.
    • -stat agents inhibit the growth of microorganisms without killing them.
    • Disinfectants kill microorganisms on inanimate objects but are not safe for use on living tissue.

    Hydrogen Peroxide Solution

    • It is a clear, colorless liquid that can decompose on standing or when exposed to light or heated.
    • It acts as a mild oxidizing antiseptic, decomposing into water and oxygen in the presence of the enzyme catalase.
    • It is commonly used as a gargle or mouthwash for bacterial infections of the throat and mouth, and in diluted form, as a vaginal douche.

    Sodium Hypochlorite Solution

    • It is a clear, pale greenish-yellow liquid with a chlorine odor.
    • It is a strong oxidizing agent and acts as a disinfectant and laundry bleach.
    • Diluted Sodium Hypochlorite Solution, N.F.XIII, is approved for use as an antibacterial agent on tissues.

    Iodine Solution

    • Iodine Solution and Iodine Tincture contain the same concentrations of ingredients but differ in the solvent (water for the solution, alcohol for the tincture).
    • They are both reddish-brown solutions with a characteristic iodine odor.
    • Iodine is a mild oxidizing agent, forming hypoiodous acid in water.
    • It is effective against many microorganisms, with Iodine Tincture being potentially more effective as the alcohol aids penetration.
    • Iodine Solution is preferred for open wounds due to the irritating nature of alcohol.

    Silver Nitrate

    • Silver Nitrate exists as colorless or white crystals that darken upon exposure to light in the presence of organic matter.
    • Solutions of silver nitrate function as antibacterial agents, primarily due to the activity of the silver ion.
    • Silver ion acts as a protein precipitant, reacting with both bacterial and human proteins.
    • Overuse of silver preparations can lead to argyria, a condition characterized by a darkening of the skin due to the deposition of silver.

    Silver Nitrate Uses

    • Silver nitrate is used as an antibacterial agent in solutions ranging from 0.01% to 10%. Higher concentrations can cause irritation.
    • A 1% solution of Silver Nitrate Ophthalmic Solution is used to prevent ophthalmia neonatorum (infection in newborn eyes).
    • Silver nitrate is effective against gonococcal organisms.
    • A 0.5% aqueous solution of silver nitrate is used as a wet dressing for third-degree burns.

    Astringent Agents

    • Astringent agents cause protein precipitation on cell surfaces, leading to protein coagulation and tissue constriction.
    • Astringents act on small blood vessels (smooth muscle) and are applied topically.
    • Astringents have a mild antimicrobial effect, restrict blood flow, and do not kill cells.
    • Common astringent products include aluminum, zinc, and zirconium salts.

    Aluminum Chloride (AlCl₃ ·6H₂O)

    • It acts as a Lewis acid and is soluble in water, alcohol, and glycerin, creating an acidic solution.
    • Used as an astringent and mild antiseptic in solutions ranging from 10% to 25%.
    • Can cause tissue irritation due to hydrolysis forming hydrochloric acid (HCl).
    • Initially used as an antiperspirant, but its irritating nature led to its replacement.

    Aluminum Hydroxy Chloride

    • Refers to monohydroxy chloride and dihydroxy chloride.
    • These compounds are acidic and less soluble in water than aluminum chloride.
    • Less irritating than aluminum chloride, making them suitable for antiperspirants.
    • Used in deodorant sprays, creams, and solutions around 20% concentration.

    Zinc Chloride

    • Forms an acidic solution due to hydrolysis, producing hydrochloric acid (HCl) and basic zinc chloride.
    • Solutions should be filtered through asbestos or glass wool as they can dissolve materials like paper and cotton.
    • Forms zinc oxychloride when mixed with zinc oxide, which is used in dental cements.

    Uses of Zinc Chloride

    • Acts as a strong astringent and mild antiseptic due to its protein precipitation properties.
    • Functions as an escharotic, aiding in tissue sloughing and scar tissue formation.
    • Used in low concentrations (0.5 to 2%) as nasal sprays or applied to mucous membranes for sinus drainage.
    • A 10% solution is used as a dentin desensitizer for teeth.

    Atomic Structure

    • Atoms consist of a central nucleus surrounded by electrons.
    • The nucleus contains protons, which have a positive charge and a mass of 1.672 x 10^-24 g, and neutrons, which are uncharged and have a mass of 1.675 x 10^-24 g.
    • Electrons possess a negative charge of one electrostatic unit (e.s.u.) and a mass of 9.107 x 10^-28 g.
    • The number of protons in an atom is equal to the number of electrons in the neutral atom.
    • The number of protons determines the atomic number of the element.
    • The sum of the masses of the protons and neutrons in an atom accounts for the atom's atomic mass.
    • The region of space around the nucleus where electrons are likely to be found is described by atomic orbitals.

    Quantum Numbers

    • The principal quantum number (n) determines the energy level of an electron. As n increases, the energy level rises.
    • The suborbital quantum number (l) describes the shape and size of an electron's orbital.
      • l = 0 corresponds to an s orbital, which is spherical.
      • l = 1 corresponds to a p orbital, which is dumbbell-shaped.
      • l = 2 corresponds to a d orbital, which has a more complex shape.
      • l = 3 corresponds to an f orbital, which has an even more complex shape.
    • The magnetic quantum number (ml) specifies the spatial orientation of an orbital.
    • The spin quantum number (ms) represents the intrinsic angular momentum of an electron, which is oriented either spin up (+1/2) or spin down (-1/2).

    Filling Atomic Orbitals

    • The Aufbau principle states that electrons are added to orbitals in order of increasing energy.
    • The Pauli exclusion principle states that no two electrons in an atom can have the same set of quantum numbers. Therefore, a maximum of two electrons can occupy a single orbital, and they must have opposite spins.
    • Hund's rules state:
      • Lower energy orbitals are filled before higher energy orbitals.
      • Electrons occupy degenerate orbitals singly, with parallel spin, as long as possible.

    Ionization

    • Ionization is the process of an atom losing one or more electrons, resulting in a cation (positive ion).
    • The outermost electrons are typically the ones lost during ionization.
    • The electronic structure of an ion might not reveal the exact level from which the electron was removed.
    • Transition elements can ionize to form cations with electrons remaining in the d orbitals.
    • Elements in Groups VIA and VIIA tend to gain electrons to form anions (negative ions).

    Periodic Table

    • The periodic table organizes elements based on their atomic number, electron configuration, and recurring chemical properties.
    • Elements are arranged in rows (periods) and columns (groups).
    • Groups I-VIIIA correspond to the filling of s and p orbitals.
    • Transition elements (Groups IB - VIIIB) result from the filling of d orbitals.
    • The lanthanides and actinides are located below the main body of the table and involve the filling of f orbitals.
    • Electronegativity increases from left to right across a period and from bottom to top within a group (except for Group VIIIA).

    Bonding in Molecules

    • The formation of molecules involves three primary forces:
      • Coulombic attraction between electrons and nuclei.
      • Number of electrons in valence orbitals.
      • Distribution of valence orbitals.
    • There are two main types of bonds:
      • Covalent bonds involve the sharing of electron pairs between atoms (polar or nonpolar).
      • Ionic bonds involve the transfer of electrons from an electropositive atom to an electronegative atom.
    • Orbital hybridization is the mixing of atomic orbitals to form new, degenerate orbitals with distinct spatial orientations and directional properties.
    • The number of hybrid orbitals formed equals the number of atomic orbitals involved in hybridization.

    Types of Hybrid Orbitals

    • sp orbitals: Two sp orbitals, oriented 180° apart, are formed by the combination of one s and one p orbital.
    • sp2 orbitals: Three sp2 orbitals, arranged in a triangular planar geometry (120° apart), result from the combination of one s and two p orbitals.
    • sp3 orbitals: Four sp3 orbitals, oriented towards the corners of a tetrahedron (109.5° apart), are formed by the combination of one s and three p orbitals.

    Types of Bonding Interactions

    • Ionic Bonding: Electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions.
    • Covalent Bonding: Sharing of electron pairs between atoms (nonpolar or polar).
      • Sigma bonds: Molecular orbitals that are symmetrical about the bond axis.
      • Pi bonds: Molecular orbitals located on both sides of the bond axis, perpendicular to a plane passing through the bond axis.
    • Coordinate Covalent Bonding: Both electrons in the bond come from a single atom (donor).
    • Hydrogen Bonding: Weak interaction between a partially positive hydrogen atom and a lone pair of electrons on an electronegative atom in a neighboring molecule.
    • Van der Waals Forces (London Forces): Weak electrical forces between molecules due to temporary dipoles.

    Coordination Compounds and Complexation

    • Coordination compounds form when a metal cation bonds to additional ligands (anions or neutral molecules) beyond its normal valence requirements.
    • The maximum number of ligands a metal ion can bond to is called the coordination number.
    • Ligands are typically anions or neutral molecules with nonbonded electron pairs.
    • Chelate complexes are formed when polydentate ligands bond to a metal ion, creating a ring structure.
    • Chelating agents are polydentate ligands that can improve metal ion solubility and stability.

    Bonding in Complexes

    • The (n-1)d, ns, and np orbitals can hybridize to form six bonding orbitals directed towards the ligands.

    Coordination Complexes and Chelating Agents

    • Cr(III) forms a complex with six CN- ligands, [Cr(CN)6]-3.
    • Cr(III) has 3d3 configuration, leaving two d orbitals, one s, and three p orbitals empty for bonding.
    • Fe(III) with six water molecules in a complex shows a magnetic moment (MM) of 6, indicating 5 unpaired electrons. - This suggests an outer orbital hybridization involving 4d, 4s, and 4p orbitals.
    • Replacing water with six CN- ligands in the Fe(III) complex results in an MM of 2, indicating one unpaired electron.
    • The strong negative field of CN- ligands forces pairing of electrons in the d orbitals of Fe(III), resulting in a low spin configuration.
    • Chelating agents play a role in analytical chemistry by determining metal concentrations through titration.
    • Chelating agents solubilize and stabilize metal ions in analytical solutions, enhancing their reactivity.
    • Benedict’s and Fehling’s solutions, used for reducing substance detection, employ chelating agents like citric acid and tartaric acid to complex copper(II) ions.
    • Chelating agents act as preservatives, preventing decomposition due to trace metal quantities.
    • Chelating agents are effective in treating heavy metal poisoning by forming stable, excretable complexes.
    • Calcium disodium edetate (EDTA) is used to treat lead poisoning by forming insoluble complexes excreted by kidneys.
    • EDTA has a strong affinity for calcium, and the disodium calcium form is used to avoid hypocalcemic states.
    • EDTA is also effective against other metals like copper, nickel, cadmium, zinc, chromium, and manganese but not mercury, arsenic, or gold.
    • EDTA is poorly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and is administered intravenously.
    • Disodium edetate is used in conditions dealing with hypercalcemic states.
    • Dimercaprol (BAL) is a chelating agent used in arsenic, mercury, and gold poisoning.
    • BAL forms complexes with heavy metals, disrupting their interaction with essential enzymes.
    • BAL is contraindicated in iron, cadmium, and selenium poisoning due to the toxicity of the resulting complexes.
    • BAL is administered intramuscularly due to its poor gastrointestinal absorption.
    • Penicillamine chelates copper, iron, mercury, lead, gold, and other metals.
    • Penicillamine is used to improve copper excretion in patients with Wilson’s disease.
    • Penicillamine is effective due to its resistance to metabolic inactivation by amino acid oxidase.
    • Penicillamine is used for treating gold dermatitis in patients receiving chronic gold therapy.
    • Deferoxamine mesylate is a chelating agent with a high affinity for ferric ions (Fe(III)).
    • Deferoxamine mesylate forms stable, water-soluble complexes with ferric ions.
    • Deferoxamine mesylate is used for the treatment of acute iron toxicity.
    • Deferoxamine mesylate is administered intramuscularly or intravenously due to poor gastrointestinal absorption.

    Gastrointestinal Protectives, Adsorbents, and Cathartics

    • Diarrhea is a symptom characterized by increased intestinal bulk stimulating peristalsis, leading to frequent defecation.
    • Acute diarrhea can be caused by bacterial toxins, chemical poisons, drugs, allergy, and disease.
    • Chronic diarrhea arises from conditions like gastrointestinal surgery, carcinomas, inflammatory conditions, and absorptive defects.
    • Antidiarrheal agents aim at treating the symptoms and potentially the cause of diarrhea but not its complications.
    • Antidiarrheal products often contain adsorbent-protectives, antispasmodics, and antibacterial agents.
    • Adsorbent-protectives bind toxins, bacteria, and viruses in the gastrointestinal tract and provide a protective barrier to the intestinal mucosa.
    • Adsorbents bind substances through physical or chemical adsorption.
    • Physical adsorption involves weak, nonspecific forces like Van der Waals forces, while chemical adsorption entails stronger chemical bonding.
    • Activated charcoal acts as an adsorbent with a high surface area and porous structure, effectively binding various substances.
    • Clay adsorbs toxins and bacteria through both physical and chemical adsorption.
    • Bismuth salts exert a mild astringent and antiseptic action and form bismuth sulfide, visible as black stools.
    • Bismuth subnitrate (N.F.XIII) is practically insoluble in water and alcohol, but dissolves in acids.
    • Bismuth subnitrate has a well-known incompatibility with tragacanth but can be overcome using sodium biphosphate or trisodium phosphate.
    • Bismuth subnitrate is a component of Milk of Bismuth, acting as a mild astringent-protective.
    • Bismuth subcarbonate (U.S.P.XVIII) is practically insoluble in water and alcohol, but dissolves in hydrochloric or nitric acid with effervescence.
    • Kaolin is a hydrated aluminum silicate that binds toxins and bacteria through both physical and chemical adsorption.
    • Kaolin is insoluble in water, diluted acids, and alkali hydroxides.
    • Activated charcoal works primarily through physical adsorption due to its highly porous structure, effectively binding large organic molecules.
    • Saline cathartics act by increasing the osmotic load in the gastrointestinal tract, drawing fluids into the intestines and stimulating peristalsis.
    • Saline cathartics are salts of poorly absorbable anions like biphosphate, phosphate, sulfate, and tartrate.
    • Saline cathartics are water-soluble and should be taken with water to prevent dehydration and minimize nausea and vomiting.
    • Saline cathartics are generally safe for short-term use, but prolonged use can lead to dependence.
    • Constipation can be caused by various factors like resisting the urge to defecate, intestinal atony, spasm, emotions, drugs, and diet.
    • Stimulant laxatives act by locally irritating the intestinal tract, stimulating peristalsis.
    • Bulk-forming laxatives swell with water, increasing intestinal bulk and stimulating peristalsis.
    • Emollient laxatives function as lubricants or stool softeners, facilitating the passage of compacted fecal material.

    Saline Cathartics

    • Sodium Biphosphate, Sodium Phosphate, Sodium Sulfate, and Potassium Sodium Tartrate are saline cathartics containing sodium.
    • Magnesium salts should be avoided for patients with renal impairment because some magnesium is absorbed and it has a central nervous system depressant effect.
    • Sodium Biphosphate is a colorless or white powder that is slightly deliquescent and acid to litmus.
    • Sodium Biphosphate dissociates into ions when dissolved in water: NaH2PO4 → Na+ + H2PO4⁻
    • It is used as a cathartic in Phospho-Soda, Vacuetts, and Sal Hepatica.
    • Sodium Phosphate is a colorless or white granular salt with an alkaline solution.
    • Sodium Phosphate dissociates into ions when dissolved in water: Na2HPO4 → 2Na+ + HPO4²⁻
    • It is used as a saline cathartic in Fleet Enema and Phospho-Soda.
    • Dried Sodium Phosphate is a nearly anhydrous white powder that readily absorbs moisture.
    • Dried Sodium Phosphate is used in Effervescent Sodium Phosphate which is a mixture of Sodium Bicarbonate, Tartaric Acid, and Citric Acid.

    Topical Agents

    • Topical drugs are applied to body surfaces and primarily act at the surface of application.
    • Some topical drugs can penetrate deeper tissues and lead to systemic effects such as toxicity or allergic reactions.
    • Topical agents can be categorized into three types: protective agents, antimicrobial agents, and astringent compounds.

    Protective Agents

    • Protectives are applied to the skin to protect certain areas from irritation.
    • Protective agents should be insoluble and chemically inert.
    • Protective agents are biologically inactive and should not be absorbed by the skin.
    • Many protectives act as adsorbents and absorb moisture from the skin's surface.
    • Protectives are commonly used as powders, ointments, or suspensions.

    Talc

    • Talc is a hydrous magnesium silicate that is a very fine, white or grayish white powder.
    • Talc is unctuous, adheres readily to the skin, and is free from grittiness.
    • It is odorless, tasteless, and insoluble in water, dilute acids, and dilute bases.
    • Talc has low adsorptive properties.
    • Talc can be synthesized through reacting magnesium oxide or a magnesium salt with silica at elevated temperatures and pressures.
    • It is used as a lubricating, protective dusting powder to prevent irritation due to friction.
    • It is used in preparations that may be perfumed for cosmetic purposes or medicated with antimicrobial agents.

    Zinc Oxide

    • Zinc Oxide is a very fine, odorless, amorphous, white or yellowish white powder.
    • It is insoluble in water and alcohol and will gradually absorb carbon dioxide from the air to form basic zinc carbonate.
    • Zinc Oxide reacts with dilute acids and aqueous solutions of ammonium compounds to form water-soluble products.
    • Zinc Oxide is used as a mild astringent and a weak antimicrobial compound due to the release of a small amount of zinc ion from hydrolysis in the acidic moisture on the skin.
    • It is used as an astringent and topical protective in ointments in the treatment of skin ulcerations and other dermatological problems.
    • Zinc Oxide is the primary ingredient in Calamine.

    Calamine

    • Calamine is zinc oxide with a small proportion of ferric oxide.
    • The presence of ferric oxide gives Calamine a pink color.
    • Calamine is insoluble in water and soluble in mineral acids.
    • Calamine is a topical protective and is used in dusting powders, ointments, and lotions for its soothing, absorbent, and protective properties.

    Antimicrobial Agents

    • Antimicrobial agents are chemicals used to prevent and/or reduce infection caused by microorganisms.
    • The term antimicrobial agent includes antiseptics, germicides, and disinfectants as well as -stat agents.
    • Antiseptic: A substance that kills or inhibits the growth of microorganisms, usually applied to living tissues (e.g., skin) to prevent infection.
    • Germicide: A substance that kills microorganisms outright.
    • -stat: Refers to agents that do not kill microorganisms, but inhibit their growth.
    • Disinfectant: A chemical used to kill microorganisms on inanimate objects, such as instruments or surfaces.
    • Sterilization: A process that completely removes or kills all microorganisms from an object.
    • The mechanisms of action of inorganic antimicrobial agents can be divided into three general categories: oxidation, halogenation, and protein precipitation.

    Oxidation

    • The effective oxidative action of oxidizing compounds involves the reducing groups present in most proteins, e.g., the sulfhydryl (-SH) group in cysteine.
    • Oxidizing antiseptics form disulfide bridges in proteins, altering their confirmation and function.

    Halogenation

    • Halogenation occurs with antiseptics of the hypohalite type and hypochlorite, OCl⁻.
    • Halogenation can result in the substitution of chlorine atoms for hydrogen atoms, which changes the forces responsible for the proper conformation of the protein molecule.

    Protein Precipitation

    • Protein precipitation involves the interaction of proteins with metallic ions having large charge/radius ratios or strong electrostatic fields.
    • The interaction of metal ions with protein is nonspecific and at sufficient concentration will react with host as well as microbial protein.
    • The presence of the metal "ties up" important functional groups at the active site on the enzyme

    Hydrogen Peroxide

    • Hydrogen Peroxide is a clear, colorless liquid which may have an odor resembling that of ozone.
    • It is unstable and decomposes upon standing or agitation.
    • Hydrogen Peroxide is unstable on prolonged exposure to light.
    • Hydrogen Peroxide solutions may be stabilized with acids, complexing agents, or adsorbents.
    • Hydrogen Peroxide is an oxidizing agent and decomposes into two oxide ions, O²⁻.
    • The primary use of Hydrogen Peroxide Solution is as a mild oxidizing antiseptic.
    • It can be used as a gargle or mouthwash for the treatment of bacterial infections of the throat and mouth.

    Sodium Hypochlorite

    • Sodium Hypochlorite is clear, pale greenish-yellow liquid having an odor of chlorine.
    • It is affected by light.
    • The Diluted Sodium Hypochlorite Solution is prepared by diluting the original sodium hypochlorite solution and adjusting the pH to 8.3 or lower.
    • Sodium Hypochlorite solutions are strong oxidizing agents.
    • Diluted Sodium Hypochlorite solution is used as an antibacterial agent for tissues.
    • It can be used as a foot bath in the prevention of various fungal infections.
    • Its antibacterial effectiveness can be increased by acidifying the solution.

    Iodine Solution

    • Iodine Solutions are transparent, reddish-brown liquids with a characteristic odor of iodine.
    • Iodine Solutions contain the same concentrations of ingredients, with only the solvent being different.
    • Both Iodine Solution and Iodine Tincture are prepared with purified water.
    • Both formulations contain approximately 50% alcohol as the final solvent.
    • Iodine Solution is preferred for application to wounds because the alcohol in the Tincture is very irritating to open tissue.
    • Povidone-Iodine is a complex of iodine with carrier organic molecules serving as a solubilizing agent.
    • Iodophors slowly liberate iodine in solution and have less tissue irritation, making them useful for sensitive areas and mucous membranes.

    Silver Nitrate

    • Silver Nitrate occurs as colorless or white crystals which become gray or grayish-black on exposure to light in the presence of organic matter.
    • It is very soluble in water, sparingly soluble in alcohol, and freely soluble in boiling alcohol.
    • Silver Nitrate is used as an antibacterial agent.
    • The chemistry and pharmacological action of Silver Nitrate is related to the silver ion.
    • The protein precipitant action of Silver Nitrate is not selective and will precipitate both bacterial and human protein.
    • Extended use of silver preparations may cause a darkening of the skin due to the deposition of free silver below the epidermis. This condition is termed argyria and is essentially irreversible.

    Silver Nitrate Uses

    • Silver nitrate is used as an antibacterial agent in solutions ranging from 0.01% to 10%.
    • Higher concentrations of silver nitrate can be astringent and irritant to tissues.
    • A 1% solution of silver nitrate is used in the eyes of newborns to prevent ophthalmia neonatorum, an infection caused by gonococcal organisms.
    • A 0.5% aqueous solution of silver nitrate is used as a wet dressing on third-degree burns.

    Astringents

    • Astringents are compounds that cause protein precipitation on cell surfaces, leading to coagulation of proteins and tissue constriction.
    • They typically act on small blood vessels and are applied topically.
    • Astringents have limited penetration, resulting in mild antimicrobial effects and restricted blood flow, but they do not cause cell death.

    Uses of Astringents

    • Styptic action: Stop bleeding from small cuts by promoting blood coagulation and constricting capillaries.
    • Antiperspirant: Decrease sweat secretion.
    • Constrict mucous membranes: Reduce inflammation by limiting blood flow to the surface.
    • Topical actions: Remove unwanted tissue or restrict protein action. Higher concentrations can be corrosive.

    Aluminum Chloride

    • It is a Lewis acid, highly soluble in water, alcohol, and glycerin.
    • It is used in aqueous solutions (10% to 25%) as an astringent and mild antiseptic.
    • Can cause tissue irritation due to hydrolysis, which forms hydrochloric acid (HCl).
    • Initially used as an antiperspirant but was too irritating and damaged clothing.

    Aluminum Hydroxy Chloride

    • Two forms exist: monohydroxy chloride and dihydroxy chloride.
    • Both forms are acidic but less soluble in water than aluminum chloride.
    • Less irritating and commonly used in commercial antiperspirants.
    • Used in deodorants, creams, and solutions at approximately 20% concentration.

    Zinc Chloride

    • Solutions are acidic due to hydrolysis forming hydrochloric acid (HCl) and basic zinc chloride.
    • Must be filtered through asbestos or glass wool to prevent dissolving substances like paper and cotton.
    • Forms zinc oxychloride when mixed with zinc oxide, creating a hard mass used in some dental cements.

    Uses of Zinc Chloride

    • Astringent & antiseptic: Strong protein precipitant, acting as a strong astringent and mild antiseptic.
    • Escharotic action: Aids in tissue sloughing and scar tissue formation, promoting healing.
    • Nasal spray & sinus treatment: In low concentrations (0.5 to 2%), applied to mucous membranes or used as nasal sprays to aid sinus drainage.
    • Dentin desensitizer: 10% solution applied to teeth to desensitize dentin.

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    Test your knowledge on the components of an atom, including protons, neutrons, and electrons. This quiz covers key concepts such as quantum numbers and electron configurations. Perfect for students studying atomic theory and structure.

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