Archaeology: Excavation and Methods

Introduction to Archaeology

• Archaeology studies human history through material culture, which includes human-made and preserved items
• Evidence from the past that archaeology deals with, is often incomplete
• Examples of items under archaeological study are pyramids, tombs, temples, and domestic architecture
• Archaeology focuses on analyzing material remains such as artifacts and buildings, to understand past human societies and their cultures
• The field involves excavation, documentation, and interpretation to understand human life, interactions, and evolution

Excavation Methods

• A grid system divides a site into square units arranged in a grid
• This helps study layers and shows order of time by dividing the site into squares
• Each square is dug with baulks (walls) left between them
• The layers in the grid system are called strata, which are labeled to tell them apart
• Older items are typically found lower down in the grid
• Archaeologists use the grid to record the location of artifacts to find patterns and understand events in different areas
• Squares are typically 2x2 meters
• Excavation is done in layers, typically 5-10cm at a time
• Baulks are left between squares to provide stratigraphic reference
• This system provides clear stratigraphic data, is easy to modify, and preserves vertical sections for analysis

Pit Method

• This method involves digging small, isolated pits across a site
• Pits are excavated individually
• Soil is removed in measured increments and material is segregated by layer
• This allows for the quick sampling of different site areas and initial site testing
• The pit method is less time-consuming and expensive
• Both methods help to uncover and document archaeological sites
• The chosen method depends on the research goals and characteristics of the site

Archaeological Terms

• Artifacts are objects modified or made by humans, and are of archaeological or historical interest
• Artifacts can be tools, artworks, or other human-made items
• Artifacts are different from ecofacts (natural objects modified by humans) and features (non-portable modifications to a site)
• Artifacts provide insights into past cultures and behaviors
• Strata, singular stratum, is layers of soil or rock that accumulate over time
• Strata are layers in an archaeological site which is revealed by excavation, and are labelled with older items found further down
• Stratigraphy is the study of strata, which is based on the principle that the oldest material is in the lowest layers and the youngest is closest to the surface
• In archaeology, strata represent different periods of deposition and follow the law of superposition, where older layers are below newer ones
• Analyzing strata helps establish chronology and provide context

Baulks

• Baulks are left between trenches to study the complete stratigraphy of a site
• Each baulk provides a vertical record of Earth's layers
• Baulks may be removed for the overall nature of the site.
• Excavation involves uncovering artifacts, features, and ecofacts
• The context and relationships between finds are recorded
• Stratigraphic methods are often used to remove layers sequentially
• Various techniques, like remote sensing, may be employed before digging

Provenance

• Provenance is the documented history of an object's location, ownership, and importance
• It refers to the published ownership history and origins of an archaeological artifact
• Knowing provenance helps locate when and where an artifact was preserved when found
• In archaeology, provenance helps establish the cultural context and authenticity of artifacts
• It includes the chain of custody from discovery until the present day
• Provenance differs from provenience, which refers to an artifact's original location
• It is crucial for ethical and legal considerations, especially for potentially looted or illegally exported items
• Understanding these terms is essential for interpreting findings and their importance in reconstructing human cultures and activities

Dating Methods

• Stratigraphic dating determines age by analyzing the layers (strata) of a dig, where the oldest materials are in the lowest layers
• Artifacts are analyzed and recorded in their original position and after removal
• Artifacts like coins can provide precise dates
• Stratigraphic dating provides a relative chronological sequence without specialized equipment
• It can be applied to any type of material
• It helps establish context and relationships between artifacts
• Stratigraphic dating helps with understanding site formation and cultural changes over time
• One of its limitations is it does not provide exact dates
• The principle of superposition can be disrupted by natural or human activities
• Interpretation can be unclear with disturbances that complicate results
• The Three-Age System organizes finds in sequential order, and was made in 1836 by C. J. Thomsen
• Thomsen established a three-part organization of ancient artifacts based on stone, bronze, and iron technology
• These periods reflect technological developments, the oldest is the Old Stone Age or Palaeolithic time
• The middle period is called Mesolithic, and the later period is called Neolithic
• The Bronze Age is divided into Early, Middle, and Late reflecting important technological phases
• Despite scientific advancements, it remains a common way to order finds
• It provides a simple framework for classifying prehistory into the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages
• The Three-Age System helps establish relative chronologies, interpret technological progression, and organize artifacts based on materials
• It is still widely used publicly to understand prehistoric Europe, the Mediterranean, and the Near East
• One of its limitations is it too simple, which ignores the complexity of human development
• It is Eurocentric, and does not apply well to other regions like Africa or the Americas
• The dating isn't universal as different regions shifted between ages at different times
• The dating only has a focus on tools and implies progression, which oversimplifies history
• The system is biased towards durable materials and is outdated with new dating methods
• Radiocarbon dating helps determine the age of organic materials between 400 and 50,000 years
• Living organisms absorb carbon-14 from the atmosphere which stops when they die
• Carbon-14 decays at a constant rate and measures the time since the organism died, with half decaying after 5,730 years
• It is applied to organic materials like bone, hair, wood, charcoal, leather, paper, and preserved feces
• A strength of radiocarbon dating is it can date organic materials that are up to 50,000-60,000 years old
• It provides more accurate dating within archaeological sites with comparative analysis through great distances
• The system has led to improved and greater versatility with accelerator mass spectrometry technology
• One of its limitations is it isn't effective for samples older than 50,000-60,000 years, due to a lack of C-14
• Contamination that affects the results can be a risk
• Human activities in the environment and limitations can cause issues
• Radiocarbon dating can be expensive for some projects, and cannot apply to inorganic materials
• Dendrochronology dates timber by analyzing tree rings
• Each ring represents a year
• Scientists can precisely date the wood and archaeological layer by matching ring patterns from artifacts
• Dendrochronology provides accurate calendar dates with long chronologies by providing environmental insights
• It can be performed without damage and has wide application
• One of its limitations is it requires trees with growth limits its use in certain regions
• It needs samples with 30 intact rings for analysis from mastered trees
• The technique can be misleading if aged wood was used, including fraud
• Some find data proprietary and there can be sample depletion through lack of datable samples

DNA Analysis

• DNA analysis is a relatively young branch of science at around 30 years old
• It has revolutionized human behavior, aging, disease, and has contributed to forensic, historical, and archaeological investigations
• DNA is the genetic blueprint found in all organisms and is located in the cell nucleus, with a small amount in the mitochondria
• DNA can be recovered from materials like skeletons, mummies, and preserved plant remains
• Human DNA can be extracted from tools and weapons recently
• Analysis of ancient DNA is limited by low quality and unreliable
• The DNA molecules degrade based on time, temperature
• Despite the limitations, this can help answer historical, evolutionary, and archaeological questions
• It has provided insights to ancient populations by revealing ancestry and relationships
• It reconstructs human evolution by connecting species like Neanderthals with modern humans
• It traces migrations and identifies genetic diversity
• DNA complements data which links findings to artifacts and ecological records
• One of its limitations is degradation over time which makes it difficult to analyze
• Contamination from microbial DNA can complicate results
• Environmental sensitivity can limit the technique and it can be costly resulting in ethical concerns with human remains

Excavation and Removal

• Excavation and removal of artifacts presents challenges and controversies through ethical, practical, and legal concerns
• Ethical challenges are dealing with cultural heritage, ownership rights, and descendant communities to prevent conflicts
• Legal challenges that arise are navigating international laws, repatriation, and illegal trade
• Practical challenges are funding, preservation, storage, access, and political instability
• Controversies include public perception, decolonization of archaeology, scientific value, and academic responsibility
• It requires working with local communities and cultural sensitivities to highlight the need for ethical guidelines and collaboration

Ancient Mesopotamia and Sumer

• Agriculture developed because of access to fertile soil, irrigation, and crops like wheat and barley
• Sumer's location between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers has advantages
• Fertile Soil
• Irrigation Potential
• Agricultural Surplus
• Trade Opportunities
• City Development
• The role of trade in Sumerian society included economic growth, urbanization, and social changes
• Writing in Sumerian society was used for communication and record-keeping
• Stages of writing were for keeping track of trade, and adapted over time to represent language
• The creation of Sumerian cuneiform created complex information, such as trade agreements, taxation records, and governance.
• It expanded to include religious texts, administrative records, and other forms of communication
• Writing in Sumer helped standardize communication, preserve history, and facilitate cultural exchanges
• Deities created humans from clay to serve them by providing shelter, food, and worship
• Sumerian gods were associated with natural forces
• Virtues were important but suffering was divinely ordained and there was an afterlife
• Beliefs about the afterlife influenced one's treatment in the afterlife and wealth could gain favor
• Sumerian religion had emphasis on worship, marriage rights, and festivals
• Sumerian beliefs shaped structure, practices and the afterlife was grim
• Temples served as religious, economic, and administrative centers
• Priests did daily rituals that managed resources
• Burials varied by status
• Religious beliefs shaped the ethic, culture, and were servants of the gods
• The king in Assyrian society was appointed as a multifaceted role and had absolute power
• The chief functions related to devotion and military conquests
• In governance, the king was the chief lawmaker dependent on gods