Applied and Theoretical Linguistics Quiz
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Questions and Answers

Which field describes language and teaches how it is learned and used?

  • Applied Linguistics (correct)
  • Sociolinguistics
  • Theoretical Linguistics
  • Historical Linguistics

    • Which area encompasses Language Acquisition, Teaching and Learning Foreign Languages, and Psycholinguistics?

  • Comparative Linguistics
  • Descriptive Linguistics
  • Fields of Applied Linguistics (correct)
  • Theoretical Linguistics

    • What does the study of Historical Linguistics focus on?

  • The application of language in educational contexts
  • The evolution and changes of languages over time (correct)
  • The phonetic structure of contemporary languages
  • The analysis of dialect variations in real-time

    • Which definition best encapsulates the goal of Linguistics?

    <p>To describe varieties of languages and the knowledge of speakers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which branch of Linguistics examines phonetics, morphology, syntax, and semantics?

    <p>Theoretical Linguistics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of Linguistics?

    <p>To describe linguistic knowledge underlying language behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT considered a branch of Linguistics?

    <p>Pragmatic Theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of Sociolinguistics?

    <p>Language use in social contexts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is defined as the study of the geographical distribution of linguistic forms and usages?

    <p>Geographical Linguistics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term describes the study of the internal structures of languages without considering their historical development?

    <p>Synchronic Linguistics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which area of linguistics deals specifically with the meaning of words, sentences, and texts?

    <p>Semantics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which linguistic branch deals with the sounds of a language and how they are produced?

    <p>Phonetics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term morphology refer to in linguistics?

    <p>The study of word formation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term describes the systematic study of the relationship between linguistic choices and their effects in literature?

    <p>Literary Stylistics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the definition of Clinical Linguistics?

    <p>The study of speech and communication impairments</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term syntax refer to in linguistics?

    <p>The organization of words into sentences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which linguistic field focuses on how language is used in social contexts?

    <p>Sociolinguistics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following refers to the assessment and evaluation of language proficiency?

    <p>Language Testing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the focus of Applied Linguistics?

    <p>Practical issues where language is relevant</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the deliberate change from one manner or style of speaking to another?

    <p>Code Switching</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of these describes the study of how sounds are organized in a particular language?

    <p>Phonology</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term refers to a language variety used by a group of people in their public discourse?

    <p>Standard Language</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of non-standard language?

    <p>Used by socially disfavored groups</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Dialect can be defined as:

    <p>The sum of local speech characteristics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What approach states what is considered right and wrong in language?

    <p>Prescriptive Approach</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the focus of the descriptive approach in language studies?

    <p>Describing language as rule governed</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does sociolinguistics study?

    <p>Language use in social contexts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which level of dialect is characterized by differences in word structure?

    <p>Morphological</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term defines a difference in pronunciation within dialects?

    <p>Accent</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'register' refer to in language?

    <p>Adjustments in language based on social context</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Differences in meaning based on dialect are referred to as:

    <p>Semantic Variations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of dialect considers the social status of speakers?

    <p>Grammatical</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines 'subject matter' in terms of linguistic choices?

    <p>The topic being discussed</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the parameters that determine register?

    <p>Social roles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term describes a set of linguistic items with similar distribution?

    <p>Variety</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term is used to describe language that operates within specific professions or group activities?

    <p>Jargon</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of language behavior includes activities such as speaking and writing?

    <p>Language production</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of behavioristic language learning theory?

    <p>Observable behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines standard language in a linguistic context?

    <p>Language of educated speakers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term describes the language of individuals raised in countries where English is the first language?

    <p>English as a Native Language</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does communicative competence encompass according to language education?

    <p>Appropriate language use in context</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a major factor in determining whether complex sentences are feasible in communication?

    <p>Capacity of the listener’s mind</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term refers to the specific knowledge necessary for correct sentence formation in a language?

    <p>Linguistic competence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of language acquisition considers textual and phonemic procedures?

    <p>Language comprehension</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term describes variations in pronunciation without changes in grammar or vocabulary?

    <p>Accent</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of language is likely used by socially marginalized groups?

    <p>Non-standard language</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do the terms possibility, feasibility, appropriateness, and attestedness refer to?

    <p>Components of communicative competence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of universal grammar in language theory?

    <p>To explain innate properties of all languages</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'possibility' refer to in the context of a language?

    <p>The grammatical correctness of utterances</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term describes the relationship between language and its contextual appropriateness?

    <p>Appropriateness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does 'language family' refer to?

    <p>A collection of languages that evolved from a common ancestor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines standard language?

    <p>A formalized version of a language used in written communication</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term refers to socially and regionally specific varieties of a language?

    <p>Dialect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of 'ethnocide' as described in the context?

    <p>The destruction of a people's culture</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does 'pidgin language' indicate?

    <p>A language developed for trade among speakers with no common language</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'necessity' refer to when discussing language borrowing?

    <p>The practical need for specific terms in different domains</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which group of languages includes French, Spanish, and Italian?

    <p>Romance Languages</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What represents the influence of other languages on a language's development?

    <p>Borrowings</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor does not directly impact the lexicon changes in Middle English?

    <p>Cultural stagnation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is 'English as a Lingua Franca' used for?

    <p>To facilitate communication among speakers of different first languages</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do the characteristics of attitudes towards language include?

    <p>The opinions and feelings about language varieties</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term describes the collective issues faced in the world that involve language?

    <p>Applied linguistics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term describes the influence of one language on another?

    <p>Borrowings</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which group of languages includes French, Spanish, and Italian?

    <p>Romance Languages</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of cultural change, migration, and language spread?

    <p>Language revival</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is referred to when distinct languages trace back to a common source?

    <p>Language family</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term describes the simplified language developed for communication between groups without a common language?

    <p>Pidgin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do you call languages that have no known relationship to any other languages?

    <p>Isolated languages</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term encompasses the factors of necessity, prestige, and intercommunication in the change of English lexicon?

    <p>Sociolinguistic factors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is defined as the attempt to destroy a group of people's culture?

    <p>Ethnocide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is primarily a focus in the Grammar Translation Method?

    <p>Translation of texts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What refers to the communication that occurs in English among individuals with different native languages?

    <p>English as a Lingua Franca</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What describes the vocabulary development sectors such as social, political, and economic fields?

    <p>Lexical borrowing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the impact of historical and political factors on the status of English as a Lingua Franca?

    <p>Encourages language learning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What refers to a teaching approach focused on teaching grammar rules and translation skills?

    <p>Grammar Translation Method</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characteristic is mainly emphasized in the Grammar Translation Method during lessons?

    <p>Accuracy in translation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main idea of the Natural Approach regarding language production in learners?

    <p>Production should be delayed until speech emerges.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do long-term goals in language learning typically refer to?

    <p>Fluency in the target language.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary aim of short-term goals in language learning?

    <p>To achieve specific results during class.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the stage of preproduction in the Natural Approach primarily focus on?

    <p>Listening comprehension skills.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes the early production stage in language learning?

    <p>Marked by errors while learning.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the speech-emergent stage, what type of activities do students engage in?

    <p>Role-plays and group discussions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which characteristic of the Natural Approach emphasizes understanding rather than practice?

    <p>Exposure to the target language.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does the teacher play in the Natural Approach?

    <p>Creating a friendly atmosphere.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the Natural Approach, what should the instructional materials aim to do?

    <p>Make activities meaningful and relatable.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What principle of the Communicative Approach suggests that language must be used for meaningful tasks?

    <p>Task Principle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the meaningful principle of Communicative Language Teaching assert?

    <p>Learning is supported by language that is meaningful to the learner.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the Communicative Approach state about language learning success?

    <p>It is contingent upon enough exposure and motivation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What key aspect of language does the Communicative Approach emphasize?

    <p>Discourse functions and their practical use.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the characteristic of teaching the class in the student's mother tongue refer to?

    <p>Grammar Translation Method</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which negative aspect is associated with the Grammar Translation Method?

    <p>Tedious memorization and translation exercises</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic feature of the Direct Method?

    <p>Classroom instruction is conducted exclusively in the target language.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What limitation of the Direct Method involves teacher dependency?

    <p>The effectiveness relies heavily on teacher skills rather than textbooks.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the characteristic of teaching grammar inductively refer to?

    <p>Grammar rules are derived from examples rather than explained.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which positive aspect of the Grammar Translation Method relates to assessment?

    <p>Tests of grammar and translations are easily constructed.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a defining characteristic of the Direct Method regarding vocabulary instruction?

    <p>Everyday vocabulary and sentences are prioritized.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the Direct Method approach pronunciation and grammar?

    <p>Both correct pronunciation and grammar are stressed.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What teaching methodology emphasizes minimal teacher explanation to avoid native language use?

    <p>Direct Method</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which scenario is ideal for applying the Grammar Translation Method?

    <p>When understanding texts is the primary focus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who is credited with founding the Direct Method?

    <p>Charles Berlitz</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the emphasis of the Direct Method in terms of language use?

    <p>Oral interaction is a key component.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one limitation faced by the Direct Method in public education?

    <p>It is difficult to implement in larger class sizes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of grammar does the Grammar Translation Method focus on?

    <p>Deductive presentation of rules.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key focus of the communication principle in CLT?

    <p>A learner-centered approach</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the primary goal of classroom activities in CLT?

    <p>Authentic and meaningful communication</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Fluency is given priority in which approach to language teaching?

    <p>Communicative Language Teaching</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In CLT, how are communication failures viewed?

    <p>As a shared responsibility</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does the teacher play in CLT?

    <p>A facilitator and participant</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of tasks does TBLT encourage?

    <p>Engagement in task work and meaningful communication</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes a positive aspect of task-based language teaching?

    <p>Tasks enhance motivation and promote learning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential drawback of task-based language teaching?

    <p>Tasks can reduce learner attention if too difficult</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What purpose do real-world tasks serve in language teaching?

    <p>To engage in authentic communication</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following represents a reason we need language?

    <p>To convey information and influence others</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does a communication system need to be considered a language?

    <p>Lexicon and grammar</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of gestures and signs in language?

    <p>They serve as alternative means of communication</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'mental phenomenon' in language refer to?

    <p>The knowledge about language rules and meanings</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the concept of language, what does 'discourse' refer to?

    <p>A structured way of organizing thoughts and meaning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term refers to the relevant constraints of the communicative situation that influence language use?

    <p>Context</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary focus of discourse analysis?

    <p>Understanding naturally occurring language use</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following refers to language use above and beyond the sentence?

    <p>Discourse Analysis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term describes speeches, stories, and jokes?

    <p>Monologues</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which element of conversation analysis emphasizes the exchange of speaking turns?

    <p>Turn-taking</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What refers to non-verbal elements that modify meaning in communication?

    <p>Paralanguage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term refers to the physical distance maintained during communication?

    <p>Proxemics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following demonstrates the ability to interpret another speaker's intended meaning?

    <p>Pragmatic competence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is characterized by gestures and movements produced during speech?

    <p>Body language</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which item is associated with the momentary absence of speech signaling a desire to end or pause a conversation?

    <p>Silence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In conversational analysis, which of the following plays a significant role in determining turn-taking?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of these factors influences the context of language use?

    <p>The participants involved</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following signals non-verbal cues in conversations?

    <p>Body language</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect distinguishes pragmatic competence from linguistic knowledge?

    <p>Understanding of context</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does 'phonology' refer to?

    <p>The mental organization of physical sounds in a language.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is meant by 'language competence'?

    <p>The grammatical knowledge that native speakers possess.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does 'morphology' study?

    <p>The structure and formation of words and their components.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which concept describes the sequencing of words into phrases and sentences?

    <p>Syntax</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term refers to the innate ability to acquire language according to a specific structure?

    <p>Universal Grammar</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of conversation involves the roles of participants and their relative power dynamics?

    <p>Participants</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which concept describes how cultural norms affect language behavior in different activities?

    <p>Communicative Activity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do 'components of communicative competence' include?

    <p>Possibility, feasibility, appropriateness, and attestednes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does 'attestednes' refer to in language?

    <p>The actual occurrence of language use.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term best describes the study of how language stretches create meaning for users?

    <p>Discourse Analysis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what way is language integrated with culture according to the established definition?

    <p>Language is part of culture, and culture informs language.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines 'sociolinguistics'?

    <p>The study of language use within sociocultural contexts.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the concept of 'communicative competence' emphasize?

    <p>The norms of interaction and interpretation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which element is primarily concerned with speaker intentions beyond literal meanings?

    <p>Pragmatics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does 'semantics' investigate?

    <p>The meanings and interpretations of sentences.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What describes the range of ideas, customs, and tools that characterize particular groups?

    <p>Culture</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does paralanguage encompass in the context of communication?

    <p>Tone of voice and body language accompanying speech.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the focus of 'phonetics'?

    <p>The physical production and perception of speech sounds.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of corpus linguistics?

    <p>The analysis of large data sets for language patterns.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary focus of computer-mediated communication (CMC)?

    <p>The interaction through electronic devices.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following terms refers to the basic unit of speech within conversation analysis?

    <p>Turn-taking</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term defines the study of how language is used effectively in communication?

    <p>Communicative Competence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'lexicon' refer to?

    <p>The vocabulary and expressions of a language.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which one of the following describes how visuals are used to communicate ideas?

    <p>Visual Communication</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term refers to the learning and understanding of normed behaviors within a community?

    <p>Culture</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What concept explains the relationship where language is a part of culture, and vice versa?

    <p>Relation between culture and language</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is described as talking that accompanies actions being performed?

    <p>Language-in-action</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best defines the right conditions influencing language use in communication?

    <p>Context</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term refers to the use of body language and tone to convey meaning alongside verbal communication?

    <p>Paralanguage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of communication does discourse analysis specifically examine?

    <p>Natural language use in context</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is defined as any human communication that occurs through the use of two or more electronic devices?

    <p>Computer-mediated communication (CMC)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a technique used in discourse to explore language as a form of social practice?

    <p>Critical Discourse Analysis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What process involves decoding spoken language from the smallest meaningful units to complete texts?

    <p>Listening</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term best describes the use of persuasive techniques to influence others?

    <p>Persuasion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which field focuses on how stretches of language are perceived as meaningful by their users?

    <p>Discourse Analysis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term refers to the expressive elements used in communication, such as visual aids?

    <p>Visual Communication</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term is used to describe the approach that studies how language reproduces societal norms and power structures?

    <p>Critical Discourse Analysis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of speaking is often emphasized to achieve accent-free speech in language education?

    <p>Pronunciation Practice</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the main object of stylistic studies encompass?

    <p>Literary and Non-literary Texts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term describes the structured ways speakers use language to convey deeper meanings?

    <p>Figurative Language</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What strategy involves extensive listening activities carried out outside of the classroom?

    <p>Extensive Listening</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do intonation, pauses for breath, and body language exemplify in a conversation?

    <p>Elements within turn-taking</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes intonation in conversation?

    <p>A tool for managing turn-taking</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of silence or minimal pauses in a conversation?

    <p>To indicate a desire to stop or interrupt communication</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does paralanguage refer to in communication?

    <p>Non-verbal elements that modify meaning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following elements of communication varies according to culture?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is pragmatics primarily concerned with in communication?

    <p>The influence of context on meaning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aspect is NOT included in understanding the influence of context on language use?

    <p>The grammatical structure used</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does understanding participants' social roles play in pragmatic competence?

    <p>It guides the flow of conversational turns</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does proxemics refer to in communication?

    <p>The distance maintained between speakers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do phrases or interjections function in a conversation?

    <p>As emotional responses to parsed information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of kinesthetics in communication?

    <p>It encompasses gestures and physical touch</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can be inferred about the necessity of learning pragmatics for language learners?

    <p>It prevents misunderstandings and promotes natural interaction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of conversation is indicated by the message's content?

    <p>The appropriateness to the situation at hand</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factors are essential in understanding the need to learn pragmatics?

    <p>Cultural differences and contextual cues</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the primary aspects that influences pronunciation in language learning?

    <p>Native Language</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Children who are under the age of 11-13 are generally considered to have an advantage in what aspect of language acquisition?

    <p>Pronunciation accuracy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the quality and intensity of exposure to a foreign language significantly affect?

    <p>Pronunciation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term refers to a learner's inherent capacity for recognizing and producing the sounds of language?

    <p>Innate phonetic ability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of these strategies is used to help students realize mistakes they've made in pronunciation?

    <p>Self-correction techniques</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the nature of writing as an activity in language education?

    <p>A reflective activity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does extensive reading in language learning emphasize?

    <p>General understanding of meaning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of writing, what does reflexive writing refer to?

    <p>Personal and self-directed writing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the reasons for teaching writing in a language class?

    <p>It aids language development</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of writing requires a significant level of organization and structuring in a text?

    <p>Higher-level writing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is essential to understanding the communicative functions of texts?

    <p>Inferring context and links</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of writing activity typically involves crafting responses to controversial issues?

    <p>Intermediate-advanced tasks</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does motivation refer to in the context of language learning?

    <p>Concern for achieving good pronunciation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which reading skill involves understanding grammar structures and idiomatic expressions?

    <p>Comprehension</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of extensive reading?

    <p>Reading for pleasure at the student's own level</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key benefit of extensive reading?

    <p>Higher likelihood of developing a reading habit</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the objectives of intensive reading?

    <p>Detailed understanding of text with specific learning aims</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Language Transfer refer to?

    <p>Application of native language knowledge to a second language</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is classified as Positive Transfer?

    <p>Correct language production due to similarities in structure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor is NOT considered a personality trait in second language acquisition?

    <p>Native language fluency</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which description pertains to the concept of 'Aptitude' in language learning?

    <p>Natural ability to learn languages quickly and efficiently</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of motivation, what does 'Attitude' encompass?

    <p>Influences from family, culture, and peers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which area of study looks at the practical application of language in real-world scenarios?

    <p>Critical Applied Linguistics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Corpus Linguistics primarily study?

    <p>Patterns of language use from actual spoken and written data</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What best describes the role of 'Risk-taking' in second language acquisition?

    <p>Willingness to experiment with language, despite uncertainty</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term describes commonly paired words in a language?

    <p>Collocations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of psycholinguistics?

    <p>The mental processes involved in language comprehension and production</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Critical Applied Linguistics mainly address?

    <p>Political implications and activism in language study</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'pragmatics' refer to in language studies?

    <p>The study of meaning in context</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which area of study investigates how learners engage with language learning?

    <p>Learner Autonomy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main area of concern for cognitive linguistics?

    <p>The role of cognition in language structure and use</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aspect does discourse competence primarily focus on?

    <p>The ability to maintain coherent written and spoken discourse</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does prosody and intonation play in spoken language?

    <p>They convey emotional and syntactic nuances</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of language testing and assessment?

    <p>To evaluate and validate language proficiency in specific contexts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best defines strategic competence in language use?

    <p>The ability to manage communication breakdowns</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'fluency competence' refer to?

    <p>The ease of communication without hesitation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key aspect of Second Language Acquisition (SLA)?

    <p>The emphasis on socio-cultural perspectives and learner autonomy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes communicative competence?

    <p>The abilities required for effective conversation and social interaction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What area does the study of language acquisition primarily focus on?

    <p>The process of learning a second language</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which option best describes the scientific focus of historical linguistics?

    <p>Changes in languages over time and their interrelations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is primarily analyzed within theoretical linguistics?

    <p>Language structure, including syntax and semantics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which field investigates the relationship between language and social factors?

    <p>Sociolinguistics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes the field of applied linguistics from other linguistic disciplines?

    <p>It applies linguistic theories to real-world language problems.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following areas is identified as a branch of linguistics?

    <p>Cognitive Linguistics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement accurately describes the field of lexicography?

    <p>Compiling dictionaries and understanding word meanings</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'pragmatics' in linguistics refer to?

    <p>The analysis of language in its social context</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which linguistic field focuses on the relationship between language use and society?

    <p>Sociolinguistics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does syncronic linguistics examine?

    <p>Internal structures of languages at specific points in time</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term refers to language varieties used in public discourse that are considered the norm?

    <p>Standard Language</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which characteristic distinguishes non-standard language from standard language?

    <p>It lacks representation in written form.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aspect of linguistics is primarily concerned with how words are formed?

    <p>Morphology</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the prescriptive approach primarily focus on?

    <p>Categorizing language as correct or incorrect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of applied linguistics?

    <p>Practical problems related to language use</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which area of linguistics describes the sounds of language and their production?

    <p>Phonetics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What level of dialect does morphological variation pertain to?

    <p>Morphological</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of sociolinguistics?

    <p>Cultural indicators in language</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term semantics refer to in linguistics?

    <p>Meaning of words and sentences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'register' refer to in linguistic terms?

    <p>A variety of language used in specific contexts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does critical discourse analysis focus on?

    <p>Linguistic choices in persuasive contexts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which field involves the creation of dictionaries and grammars?

    <p>Lexicography</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which level of dialect concerns variations in meaning, such as the terms 'football' and 'soccer'?

    <p>Semantic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect does clinical linguistics specifically address?

    <p>Speech and communication impairments</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the descriptive approach in language studies emphasize?

    <p>Documenting and analyzing actual language use</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect does the term 'accents' describe in dialect studies?

    <p>Patterns or manners of pronunciation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does literary stylistics examine?

    <p>Language use in literary contexts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term describes the study of the meanings conveyed by language in context?

    <p>Pragmatics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is described as a pattern of language use that varies depending on the social context?

    <p>Register</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which branch of linguistics focuses on how sentences are formed?

    <p>Syntax</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which approach in linguistics restricts the use of certain grammatical structures?

    <p>Prescriptive approach</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which level of dialect is defined by grammatical variations based on social status?

    <p>Grammatical</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does first-language education involve?

    <p>Instruction in a language already known to the learner</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of code switching?

    <p>To mark shifts in social situations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In linguistic terms, what does 'subject matter' influence?

    <p>The choice of words and sentence structure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'jargon' refer to in linguistics?

    <p>Language used in a specific profession or group.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes 'communicative competence'?

    <p>Knowledge of social context and appropriate language use.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is 'psycholinguistics' primarily concerned with?

    <p>Language acquisition in children and adults.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which language learning theory emphasizes environmental influence?

    <p>Behavioristic theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines a 'dialect'?

    <p>A language variety with unique vocabulary and grammar.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term refers to the ability to construct grammatical sentences?

    <p>Linguistic competence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does 'English as a Second Language' refer to?

    <p>English instruction in a country where it is the main language.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does 'slang' refer to in language usage?

    <p>Informal words that are non-standard.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aspect of language acquisition involves 'textual procedures' and 'phonemic procedures'?

    <p>Language comprehension</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are 'components of communicative competence'?

    <p>Possibility, feasibility, appropriateness, and attestedness.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term describes variations in pronunciation without changing meaning?

    <p>Accent</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does 'universal grammar' suggest about languages?

    <p>Some grammatical rules are inherent in the human brain.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is defined as 'standard language'?

    <p>A language variety perceived as prestigious.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is 'feasibility' in relation to language use?

    <p>The practicality and clarity of communication.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term is used to describe a group of languages that are derived from a common ancestral language?

    <p>Language Family</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of the Grammar Translation Method?

    <p>Grammar and Vocabulary Memorization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term describes the influence of one language on another through borrowing?

    <p>Borrowings</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for a simplified language that develops as a means of communication between groups without a common language?

    <p>Pidgin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which language group do French, Spanish, Italian, Romanian, and Portuguese belong to?

    <p>Romance Languages</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'native speakers' refer to?

    <p>People born into a language community</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term is defined as the killing of a people, often associated with genocide?

    <p>Ethnocide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following factors signifies the necessity for language change?

    <p>Economic Factors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term describes communication among people who speak different first languages?

    <p>English as a Lingua Franca</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do the historical and practical reasons represent in the context of English becoming a Lingua Franca?

    <p>Motivations Behind English Language Adoption</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the process of intercommunication involve in a linguistic context?

    <p>Communication Among Different Language Groups</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term refers specifically to the elimination or destruction of a cultural group?

    <p>Ethnocide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following represents the characteristic of focusing on grammatical structures and reading comprehension in language learning?

    <p>Grammar Translation Method</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term describes languages that have no known relatives, existing independently in their own family?

    <p>Isolated Languages</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'Standard' refer to in linguistics?

    <p>A language form that is widely accepted and taught in schools</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How are 'Dialects' defined in relation to language?

    <p>Varieties that differ from the standard in pronunciation and grammar</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term describes the influence of other languages on a given language?

    <p>Linguistic borrowing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is 'Attestedness' concerning language?

    <p>The actual performance of a language in use</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are 'Romance Languages' derived from?

    <p>Latin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What best describes 'Language Attitude'?

    <p>The feelings and opinions speakers have about language varieties</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term is used for a simplified language that develops for communication between groups with no common language?

    <p>Pidgin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a defining feature of 'Insolated languages'?

    <p>Languages with no known relatives</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do 'Native speakers' refer to in linguistic terms?

    <p>Those born into using a language from early life</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does 'English as a Lingua Franca (ELF)' refer to?

    <p>A common language for communication among different language speakers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best represents the characteristics of 'Necessity' in language borrowing?

    <p>Urgent communication in social situations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do the factors of culture change, migration, and isolation represent in the context of language?

    <p>Reasons for language change</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the concept of 'Ethnocide' related to?

    <p>Killing or destruction of cultural identities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'Borrowings' specifically refer to in linguistics?

    <p>The influence and inclusion of words from other languages</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characteristic is associated with the Grammar Translation Method that may lead to student frustration?

    <p>Focus on grammar rules and isolated vocabulary memorization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which point describes a limitation of the Direct Method related to teacher requirements?

    <p>Teachers must possess native-like fluency or be native speakers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of the Grammar Translation Method makes testing easy?

    <p>Translation exercises are straightforward to score</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which characteristic of the Direct Method focuses on vocabulary teaching?

    <p>Use of demonstration and association of ideas for teaching meanings</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines the primary focus of the Grammar Translation Method?

    <p>Facilitating literal understanding of texts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a negative point of the Grammar Translation Method concerning teaching methodology?

    <p>No theoretical foundations for its practice</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What limitation of the Direct Method relates to classroom management issues?

    <p>Problems following strict teaching techniques</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defining feature of the Direct Method emphasizes spontaneous language usage?

    <p>Use of everyday vocabulary in context</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characteristic of the Grammar Translation Method can hinder learner engagement?

    <p>Tedious exercises based solely on translation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement accurately describes a positive aspect of the Direct Method?

    <p>Immediate focus on speaking skills from day one</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a limitation of the Direct Method in terms of its applicability?

    <p>Challenging to implement in public secondary education</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What component of the Direct Method requires a teacher to engage actively with the students?

    <p>Small, intensive question-and-answer exchanges</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the Grammar Translation Method lack in terms of scholarly support?

    <p>Literature addressing its effectiveness in classrooms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a main tenet of the Natural Approach regarding language production?

    <p>Learners should delay production until language skills begin to emerge.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are long-term goals in the context of language learning?

    <p>Achieving fluency in the target language.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of the early production stage in language acquisition?

    <p>The focus is on meaning rather than form.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does a teacher play in the Natural Approach?

    <p>To create a low-stress learning environment.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is emphasized in the characteristics of the Natural Approach?

    <p>Emotional preparedness and affection for learning.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement aligns with the Task Principle of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)?

    <p>Tasks with real communication enhance the learning process.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is meant by the 'Meaningful Principle' in Communicative Language Teaching?

    <p>Language must be applicable in everyday situations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does a focus on comprehension imply in the Natural Approach?

    <p>Understanding must precede actual production in learning.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the Natural Approach utilize instructional materials?

    <p>Real-life objects and visuals enhance communication.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a fundamental goal of the Natural Approach for learners?

    <p>To develop basic communication skills in various contexts.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the preproduction stage focus on primarily?

    <p>Listening comprehension and following physical commands.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the concept of Language Competence?

    <p>The system of linguistic knowledge possessed by native speakers.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What outcome does the 'Speech-emergent stage' produce in students?

    <p>Active engagement in role-plays and discussions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is true about the learner's role in the Natural Approach?

    <p>Students decide when and how to speak during lessons.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term Phonology refer to?

    <p>The mental organization of sounds in a language.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the 'Goal of instructional materials' in the Natural Approach aim to achieve?

    <p>To foster real-world communication among learners.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main focus of Morphology in linguistics?

    <p>The analysis of units of meaning in a language.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What concept is described as ‘the wordstock of a language’?

    <p>Lexicon</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term refers to the understanding of meaning in sentences?

    <p>Semantics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the concept of Universal Grammar suggest?

    <p>Certain grammatical rules are innate to humans.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is described as an important component of language competence that aids in the processing of language?

    <p>Feasibility</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In terms of language use in society, what does Communicative Competence involve?

    <p>Understanding norms of interaction based on context.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is indicated by the term Possibility in linguistics?

    <p>Whether something is grammatically correct.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How is Syntax defined in linguistic terms?

    <p>The arrangement and structure of sentences.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Corpus linguistics primarily utilize?

    <p>Computerized techniques to analyze language data.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best encapsulates the influence of communicative competence on language learning?

    <p>Starting language use from the very first day of learning.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term Attestedness refer to in a linguistic context?

    <p>The actual occurrence and use of linguistic constructs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What approach emphasizes using language primarily for communication?

    <p>Communicative Language Teaching</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of Communicative Language Teaching?

    <p>Fluency is prioritized over accuracy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In Task-Based Language Teaching, what is the primary benefit of engaging learners in tasks?

    <p>Provides a better context for activating learning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do students play in a Communicative Language Teaching setting?

    <p>They interact with each other, sharing communication responsibilities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes a negative point of Task-Based Language Teaching?

    <p>It may neglect the importance of accuracy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the 'lexicon' in a language refer to?

    <p>The vocabulary of the language</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following activities is emphasized in Task-Based Language Teaching?

    <p>Filling out forms as a real-world task</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement about the importance of communication in learning is true?

    <p>Collaboration in communication enhances learning experiences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes 'real-world tasks' in language learning?

    <p>Activities that simulate actual language use in real situations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an essential quality of authentic communication in language classrooms?

    <p>Use of language that is relevant and meaningful</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes the role of a teacher in the Communicative Language Teaching approach?

    <p>To facilitate communication and interaction among students</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary benefit of using 'pedagogical tasks' in language instruction?

    <p>They enhance learning through structured activities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one key requirement for a system to be classified as language?

    <p>It must include both lexicon and grammar</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'meaningful tasks' in language learning refer to?

    <p>Activities that are relevant to everyday experiences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aspect of communication must be emphasized for effective interaction in CLT?

    <p>Trial and error as part of the communication process</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of conversation is described by understanding the roles of the speakers and their power dynamics?

    <p>Participants in the conversation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does understanding the rights within relationships between participants help clarify?

    <p>The appropriateness of the conversation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does dropping intonation signal in a conversation?

    <p>That a response is needed</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the type of communicative activity influence language use?

    <p>It shapes the formality and structure of the language behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do phrases or interjections play in conversation?

    <p>They express the speaker's emotional state</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does silence function in communication?

    <p>It may express unwillingness to continue the conversation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is pragmatics considered important in language learning?

    <p>To avoid misunderstandings in meaning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of communication does paralanguage cover?

    <p>Non-verbal elements that express emotions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is described as the influences that guide community behavior formed by family life?

    <p>Cultural norms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'pragmatic competence' refer to?

    <p>The ability to understand another speaker’s intended meaning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What relationship is established between culture and language?

    <p>They mutually shape and define each other</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does culture influence eye contact during conversations?

    <p>Its significance varies among different cultures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term proxemics refer to in communication?

    <p>The use of physical space during conversations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is needed to communicate effectively across different languages and cultures?

    <p>Knowledge of pragmatics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes 'proxemics'?

    <p>The physical distance maintained during conversations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of 'discourse analysis'?

    <p>Understanding the influence of context on language use</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is pragmatic competence?

    <p>Interpreting another speaker's intended meaning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term describes the analysis of how language is perceived as meaningful by its users?

    <p>Discourse analysis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What factors are critical to understanding the influence of context on language use?

    <p>Speaker roles, message content, and interaction type</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does 'language-in-action' refer to?

    <p>Talk that accompanies actions or performances</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term refers to the non-verbal elements that accompany verbal communication?

    <p>Paralanguage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does 'turn-taking' play in conversation analysis?

    <p>It governs when speakers should respond or take turns</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is computer-mediated communication defined as?

    <p>Human communication via electronic devices</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does understanding pragmatics help with in language learning?

    <p>Avoiding misunderstandings about meanings</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which concept involves the constraints of the communicative situation that affect language use?

    <p>Contextual influence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant feature of the concept 'silence' in communication?

    <p>It can express desire to stop or interrupt communication</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does kinesthetics relate to in the context of communication?

    <p>The act of touching a partner while speaking</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is identified as a significant element in conversation analysis?

    <p>Turn-taking</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the description of the participants in a conversation highlight?

    <p>Their roles and relationship dynamics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do 'intonation' and 'pauses for breath' represent in conversation?

    <p>Features within turn-taking</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does the kind of communicative activity play in conversation?

    <p>It indicates the formality and norms of the interaction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best explains 'body language'?

    <p>It's a universal language that conveys emotions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'language-in-action' refer to?

    <p>The application of language in practical situations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of communication does the term 'monologues' refer to?

    <p>Solo speeches or narratives</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is characterized by speeches, stories, and jokes?

    <p>Monologic discourse</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do elements of non-verbal communication include?

    <p>Voice volume and pitch, as well as gestures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What function do 'phrases or interjections' serve in communication?

    <p>They express emotional reactions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term describes non-verbal elements that modify the meaning of speech?

    <p>Paralanguage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of communication does 'eye contact' vary across different cultures?

    <p>The interpretation of attentiveness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the emphasis of 'context' in the study of pragmatics?

    <p>It critically influences the interpretation of meaning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What concept emphasizes the influence of language on cultural perception and vice versa?

    <p>Intersectionality of language and culture</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes pragmatics?

    <p>The study of intended meaning in communication</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of discourse analysis?

    <p>The meaning derived from language use in context</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term refers to the effective use of persuasive techniques in communication?

    <p>Persuasion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines extensive listening in language learning?

    <p>Listening to material chosen by students outside the classroom</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which concept refers to the study of language as a social practice that reflects social and political dynamics?

    <p>Critical Discourse Analysis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes features of literary stylistics?

    <p>Rhetorical techniques like metaphor and irony</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which element is a characteristic of computer-mediated communication (CMC)?

    <p>Use of two or more electronic devices for interaction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What describes paralanguage in communication?

    <p>Non-verbal cues accompanying speech</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aspect of teaching listening helps learners subconsciously acquire language?

    <p>Exposure to diverse accents and varieties</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main focus of intensive listening activities?

    <p>Detailed comprehension through close analysis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The term 'listening' in language learning primarily involves what process?

    <p>Decoding sounds in a linear fashion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best identifies conversationalization in public discourse?

    <p>Casual language resembling private conversations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary influence on a learner's pronunciation?

    <p>Native Language</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what age do children typically have the best chance to sound like native speakers?

    <p>11-13 years</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What factor is characterized by the quality and intensity of exposure to a foreign language?

    <p>Exposure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term describes an individual’s inherent capability to acquire language?

    <p>Innate phonetic ability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What describes the necessity for students to acknowledge their new linguistic identity?

    <p>Identity and language ego factors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of self-correction techniques in pronunciation classes?

    <p>Student's realization of their mistakes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the complexity of writing skills in applied linguistics?

    <p>It integrates various aspects of language knowledge.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What educational approach highlights the importance of reinforcement in language learning?

    <p>Language development through writing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of writing is primarily considered a slower, reflective activity?

    <p>Extensive writing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do the following refer to: gathering information, organizing ideas, and structuring into paragraphs?

    <p>Writing at higher levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which refers to writing that is intended for others and not for personal reflection?

    <p>Extensive writing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is involved in extensive reading as a learning strategy?

    <p>Reading large amounts for general understanding</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What skills should students acquire for effective reading?

    <p>Interpreting the significance of word patterns</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term describes the rapid reading of long texts for overall comprehension?

    <p>Extensive reading</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of language does Cognitive Linguistics emphasize?

    <p>The relationship between language and cognition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main focus of Discourse Analysis?

    <p>The analysis of social meanings in language use</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes Psycholinguistics?

    <p>The study of mental processes involved in language production and comprehension</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are prosody and intonation primarily concerned with?

    <p>The rhythm, timing, and emotional tone of speech</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term Strategic Competence refer to?

    <p>The use of communication strategies to navigate conversation breakdowns</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main focus of Language Testing and Assessment?

    <p>The measurement and evaluation of language proficiency</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which area does the term Semantics specifically address?

    <p>The meanings of words and sentences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What competence is referred to when discussing one's ability to engage in coherent discourse?

    <p>Discourse Competence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What best describes the concept of Communicative Competence?

    <p>The knowledge of the language structure and its usage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term Fluency Competence refer to?

    <p>The capability to communicate without hesitation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a benefit of extensive reading?

    <p>Higher possibility of developing a reading habit</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes intensive reading tasks?

    <p>Detailed understanding of short texts with close teacher supervision</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main goal of intensive reading?

    <p>To identify main ideas and enhance vocabulary</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which personality factor significantly influences second language acquisition?

    <p>Self-esteem</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does negative transfer refer to in second language learning?

    <p>When incorrect items from the native language interfere with learning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary focus when applying the concept of motivation in SLA?

    <p>Desire and effort toward language learning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of reading tasks allows students to summarize texts and create charts for discussion?

    <p>Extensive Reading</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'collocations' refer to in language learning?

    <p>Words that frequently appear together</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of language transfer?

    <p>Applying knowledge from the first language to the second</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements best describes positive transfer?

    <p>It occurs when both languages share similar grammatical structures.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main focus of corpus linguistics?

    <p>Studying actual language use through data analysis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an example of intensive reading activity?

    <p>Identifying main ideas and filling in gaps</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does risk-taking in language learning encourage?

    <p>Willingness to experiment with the language and make mistakes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aspect is essential for understanding how learners approach language learning?

    <p>Learner autonomy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    pp Learning Foreign Languages

      • Clinical Linguistics
      • Educational Linguistics
      • Lexicography
      • Machine Translation
      • Sociolinguistics
      • Psycholinguistics
      • Computational Linguistics
      • Language pedagogy

    Linguistics

    • The scientific study of language, aiming to describe the varieties of languages and explain unconscious knowledge all speakers have.
    • Branches include theoretical, historical, comparative, geographical, descriptive, and synchronic linguistics.

    Theoretical Linguistics

    • Examines language at different levels of analysis:
      • Phonology
      • Articulation and perception of sounds (phonetics)
      • Word formation (morphology)
      • Phrases and sentences (syntax)
      • Meaning of linguistic expressions (semantics)
      • Language use (pragmatics)

    Historical Linguistics

    • Studies how languages change over time and explores the relationship between different languages.
    • Investigates the causes of language change and its impact on languages.

    Comparative Linguistics

    • Examines correspondences between languages with a common origin.
    • Classifies languages into groups.

    Geographical Linguistics

    • Studies the geographical distribution of linguistic forms and usages.
    • Analyzes regional variations in speech forms and dialects.

    Descriptive Linguistics

    • Focuses on writing dictionaries and grammars.
    • Describes the rules of a language.

    Synchronic Linguistics

    • Describes the internal phonological, grammatical, and semantic structures of languages at a given point in time.
    • Does not consider historical development or comparisons between languages.

    Phonetics

    • Deals with the sounds of language and how they are produced.

    Phonology

    • Deals with how sounds are organized in a language.

    Morphology

    • Deals with the process of word formation.

    Syntax

    • Deals with the formation of sentences and phrases.

    Semantics

    • Deals with the meaning of words, sentences, and texts.

    Pragmatics

    • Studies how people understand and produce communicative acts or speech acts in specific situations.

    First-language Education

    • When a child studies their home language or languages.

    Additional-language Education

    • Often divided into:
      • Second language education: learning a society's majority or official language (not their home language)
      • Foreign language education: learning the language of another country

    Clinical Linguistics

    • The study of the treatment of speech and communication impairments, whether hereditary, developmental, or acquired.

    Language Testing

    • The assessment and evaluation of language achievement and proficiency, both in first and additional languages.

    Literary Stylistics

    • The study of the relationship between linguistic choices and effects in literature.

    Critical Discourse Analysis

    • Studies the relationship between linguistic choices and effects in persuasive uses of language, including analysis of how language is used to indoctrinate or manipulate.

    Translation and Interpretation

    • Involves formulating principles underlying equivalence between languages and the practice of translating written text and interpreting spoken language.

    Information Design

    • Covers the arrangement and presentation of written language, including typography, layout, and effective combinations of language with other media.

    Lexicography

    • The academic discipline focused on the planning and compiling of monolingual and bilingual dictionaries and other language reference works.

    Sociolinguistics

    • The study of the relationship between language and social factors, linguistic indicators of culture, and power.
    • Examines language variations (dialects, accents) and language change.

    Functional Linguistics

    • Focuses on language as a means of communication, its purpose, and how people actually use language.

    Standard Language

    • A language variety used by a group of people in their public discourse.
    • Also considered the norm.
    • Arises from a process of standardization through the description of grammars and dictionaries.

    Non-Standard Language

    • A language variety used by uneducated speakers or socially disfavored groups.
    • Often differs from standard language, particularly in grammar, and is rarely represented in a written form.

    Dialect

    • A form or variety of a spoken language specific to a region, community, social group, or occupational group.
    • Characteristics can vary in pronunciation, syntax, etc.
    • Considered to be a deviation from a standard form of speech.

    Prescriptive Approach to Language

    • Focuses on stating right and wrong in language.
    • Enforces established grammar rules, rejecting deviations as incorrect or improper.

    Descriptive Approach to Language

    • Describes the facts of a language and the rules that govern its use.
    • Views language as inherently rule-governed.

    Linguistic Prescription

    • Aims to:
      • Specify standard language forms.
      • Explain the appropriate style and register for specific purposes.
      • Formulate these styles and registers for easy teaching and learning.

    Prescription

    • Establishes rules for language use, including grammar rules for both spoken and written language, and pronunciation.

    Description

    • Describes language variations, dialects, and styles.

    Code Switching or Code Choice

    • The deliberate change from one manner or style of speaking to another.

    Functions of Code Switching

    • To signify a switch from informal to formal situations.
    • Used between parents and children.
    • Used to announce specific identities, create specific meanings, and facilitate interpersonal relationships.
    • Used to align oneself with others in specific situations.

    Elaborated Codes

    • Used in families and large communities.
    • Require explicitness to ensure understanding, as speakers need to negotiate meaning.
    • Value explicit communication.

    Restricted Codes

    • Used in communities centered on physical work.
    • Share a subculture, requiring shared information and understanding.
    • Use fixed and inflexible syntactic patterns.
    • Predictable language due to limited vocabulary.

    Accent

    • A pattern or manner of pronunciation.

    Register

    • The variation in how a person speaks to different people according to the situation.
    • Can be determined by subject matter, social roles/situations, discursive function, and consultative nature.

    Jargon

    • Defined in relation to a specific activity, profession, group, or event.
    • Used by people working in a particular area or sharing a common interest.
    • Used to express ideas commonly discussed within the group.

    Purposes of Jargon

    • Provides speakers with clear, defined, unambiguous terms for their activities.
    • Marks in-group membership and excludes outsiders.

    Slang

    • Informal words and expressions not considered standard in the speaker's dialect or language.

    Psycholinguistics

    • The field of linguistics that studies the mental processes involved in language comprehension, production, and acquisition.
    • Includes research on:
      • Language learning in children
      • Speech processing
      • Language comprehension by children and adults

    Language Behavior

    • Activities involving speaking, listening, writing, reading, language, and gestures.

    Language Production

    • Characteristics include:
      • Oral language behavior
      • Written language behavior

    Language Comprehension

    • Characteristics include:
      • Speaking
      • Listening
      • Writing
      • Reading

    Stages in Language Acquisition

    • Aspects include:
      • Textual procedures
      • Sentence procedures
      • Constituent procedures
      • Word procedures
      • Phonemic procedures

    Behavioristic Theory of Language Learning

    • Based on observable behavior in the description and explanation of learning behavior.
    • Emphasis on environment (verbal and non-verbal) and language learning.

    Mentalistic Theory of Language Learning

    • Based on the structure of language and theoretical linguistic assumptions.
    • Focuses on the innate capacity of children to learn any language.

    Competence

    • Refers to a person's ability or knowledge of a specific skill.

    Linguistic Competence

    • The system of linguistic knowledge possessed by native speakers of a language.
    • Governs principles for correct sentence formation.

    Universal Grammar

    • A theory suggesting that all natural human languages share certain properties.
    • Proposes that some grammatical rules are innate and do not need to be learned or taught.

    Communicative Competence

    • The knowledge necessary to use language in social contexts.
    • Involves understanding vocabulary, grammar, and the context in which words are used.
    • The goal of language education.

    Components of Communicative Competence

    • Include:
      • Possibility
      • Feasibility
      • Appropriateness
      • Attestedness

    Feasibility

    • Whether (and to what degree) something is feasible in virtue of the means of implementation available.

    Possibility

    • Whether (and to what degree) something is formally possible.

    Appropriateness

    • Whether (and to what degree) something is appropriate, adequate, happy, or successful in relation to the context in which it is used and evaluated.
    • The importance of the context of an utterance.
    • Language should be interpreted within a specific situation, in which it occurs.
    • Relation of a language and a context

    Attestedness

    • Whether (and to what degree) something is in fact done, actually performed, and what its doing entails.

    Standard

    • Generally used in written communication, taught in schools, and codified in dictionaries and grammar books.

    Dialects

    • Regional and social class varieties of the language which differ from the standard in pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary.
    • Seldom written down.

    Attitude

    • A manner of acting, feeling, or thinking that shows one's disposition; opinion, or mental set.

    Language Attitude

    • The opinions, ideas and prejudices that speakers have with respect to a language.
    • The feelings people have about their own language variety or languages or language varieties of others.

    Language Family

    • A group of languages derived from the same (parental language).

    Relation Languages

    • Distinct languages which can be traced back to a common source.

    Romance Languages

    • French, Spanish, Italian, Romanian, Portuguese.

    Germanic Languages

    • German, Norwegian, Swedish, Dutch, Danish, English.

    Slavic Languages

    • Russian, Ukrainian, Polish, Czech.

    Reasons of language change

    • Culture change
    • Movement of people / migration (trade, travel, war)
    • New religions, beliefs, values, behaviours
    • Language spread
    • Geographical spread
    • Isolation
    • Borrowings

    Borrowings

    • Influence of other languages.

    Insolated / Insolation languages

    • Unrelated to any others, which makes it the only language in its own language family.

    Ethnocide

    • Destroying a people’s culture.
    • For example, Australian Aborigines, North American Native people, India, etc.
    • New tendencies to revive the culture and language have appeared.

    Pidgin languages

    • A simplified language that develops as a means of communication between two or more groups that do not have a language in common.

    Genocide

    • Killing of people.
    • For example, the Tasmanian tribes.

    The factors responsible for changes in the lexicon of English during Middle English period

    • Intercommunication
    • Prestige
    • Necessity

    Intercommunication

    • Communication among the monolingual English inhabitants and the bilingual members of the ruling and merchant classes.

    Prestige

    • One who used French words might hope to be identified with the upper classes.

    Necessity

    • Farmers, merchants, servants, defendants in the court needed the language; university students, the clergy.
    • The borrowing of lexical items in social, political, and economic, but not linguistic fields.

    Native speakers

    • Those born into the language (to contrast it with the second language speakers – those who learned the language through special education).

    English as a Lingua Franca (ELF)

    • A way to refer to communication in English between speakers who have different first languages.
    • Used to facilitate communication among speakers of different languages.

    Reasons for English becoming a Lingua Franca

    • Historical reasons
    • Internal political reasons
    • External / Internal economic reasons
    • Practical reasons
    • Intellectual reasons
    • Entertainment reasons

    Applied linguistics

    • Investigates problems in the world in which language is implicated.

    Inner circle

    • Predominantly English-speaking countries.

    Outer circle

    • The former colonies where English is an official language.

    Teaching

    • Guiding and facilitating learning, enabling the learners to learn.

    Learning

    • Acquiring or getting of knowledge of a subject or a skill by study, experience, or instruction.

    Grammar Translation Method

    • The focus is on grammatical rules, memorization of vocabulary and of various declensions and conjugations, translations of texts, and doing written exercises.
    • The focus was on grammatical rules as the basis for translating from the foreign to the native language.

    Goal of the Grammar Translation Method

    • To learn a language in order to read the target language literature.

    Characteristics of the Grammar Translation Method

    • Detailed analysis of grammar rules followed by application of this knowledge.
    • Reading and writing are the major focus (little attention to speaking/listening).
    • Reading of difficult classical texts is begun at an early stage of studying.
    • Vocabulary is based on reading texts used.
    • Much of the lesson is devoted to translating sentences into and out of the target language.
    • Accuracy Is emphasized.
    • Grammar is taught deductively - by presentation and study of grammar rules, which are practiced through translation exercises.
    • Little or no attention is given to pronunciation.
    • Class is taught in the student’s mother tongue.
    • The native language is used to explain new items and make a comparison.

    Negative Points of Grammar Translation Method

    • It may create a sense of frustration for students because of the tedious experience of memorizing rules and isolated vocabulary and endless exercises for translation.
    • It makes few demands on teachers.
    • It is a method for which there is no theory on how to teach.
    • There is no literature that offers a rationale or justification for it or that attempts to relate it to issues of linguistics, psychology, or educational theory.

    Positive Points of Grammar Translation Method

    • Is useful in the situations where understanding literally texts is the primary focus of foreign language study.
    • It may be applied when there is little need for a speaking knowledge of the language.
    • No specialized training and skills on the part of teachers.
    • No special material for teaching.
    • Tests of grammar rules and of translations are easy to construct and can be objectively scored.
    • It is successful in leading a student toward a reading knowledge of a second language.
    • The Grammar - translation method was also called the “traditional method”.
    • It has been extensively used.

    Direct Method

    • Students’ own languages are banished and everything was to be done through the language under instruction.
    • Second language learning should be more like first language learning--lots of oral interaction, spontaneous use of the language, no translation between first and second languages, and little or no analysis of grammatical rules.

    Founder of Direct Method

    • Charles Berlitz

    Characteristics of the Direct Method

    • Classroom instruction was conducted exclusively in the target language.
    • Only everyday vocabulary and sentences were taught.
    • Oral communication skills were built up in a carefully graded progression organized around question-and-answer exchanges between teachers and students in small, intensive classes.
    • Grammar was taught inductively.
    • New teaching points were taught through modeling and practice.
    • Concrete vocabulary was taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures; abstract vocabulary was taught by association of ideas.
    • Both speech and listening comprehension were taught.
    • Correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasized.

    Limitations of the Direct Method

    • The Direct Method required teachers who are native speakers or who have native-like fluency in the target language.
    • It is dependent on the teacher’s skills, rather on the textbook.
    • Problems with following strict D.M.techniques.
    • It is counterproductive (long teacher explanation in order to avoid using the native language).
    • It is difficult to apply in public secondary school education.

    Positive Points of the Direct Method

    • High motivation (Native-speaking teachers are a good speaking model).
    • Focus on conversational skills (students start speaking from the very first class).

    Natural Language Learning (Natural Approach)

    • The idea that learning would take place without explanation or grading, and without correction of error, but simply exposure to meaningful input.
    • The main point of this approach constituted the idea that learner would benefit from delaying production until speech “emerges,” that learners should be as relaxed as possible in the classroom, and that a great deal of communication and “acquisition” should take place.
    • It is a communicative approach.
    • It means that the main emphasis is made on development of the communicative competency.

    Long – term goals

    • Refer to the final result, what is expected to achieve at the end of learning process (fluent communication in target language).

    Short – term goals

    • Aimed at achieving very specific results during a class period (application of a certain grammar structure, or pronunciation rules, etc.).

    Goals of Natural Approach

    • To achieve basic personal communication skills: oral (listening to public announcements).
    • To achieve basic personal communication skills: written language (reading and writing).
    • To develop academic learning skills: oral (listening to a lecture) and written (taking notes in class).
    • Help beginners become intermediates.

    Nonverbal Communication

    • Movements and gestures are a universal language used during speech acts.
    • Eye contact, physical proximity, and touching during conversation (Kinesthetisc) are all elements of nonverbal communication.
    • Eye contact varies according to culture, in some cultures it is encouraged, while in others it is limited.
    • Proxemics, or physical proximity, refers to the personal space bubble that individuals maintain during conversations.
    • Kinesthetisc, or touching during conversation, also varies according to culture.

    Pragmatics

    • Pragmatics explains how context and social knowledge influence the interpretation of meaning.
    • The ability to understand another speaker's intended meaning is called pragmatic competence.
    • Understanding context involves considering the participants in the conversation, the message content, and the kind of communicative activity.
    • Understanding participants involves factors like their roles, power dynamics, closeness, and the number of people involved (monologue, dialogue, public speech).
    • Understanding message content considers the relationship between the message and the hearer/speaker, and whether the conversation is appropriate for their relationship.
    • Understanding the kind of communicative activity involves recognizing the context (e.g., job interview, informal conversation, lecture) and how specific norms influence language behavior.
    • Learning pragmatics is crucial for effective communication in a second or foreign language, helping to avoid misunderstandings.

    Culture and Language

    • Culture guides the behavior of people in a community and influences how they perceive the world.
    • Culture is highly important in second language learning.
    • Language is an expression of culture, and culture is embedded in language; they are inseparable.
    • Language influences the speakers' worldview and has significant implications for translation.
    • Culture consists of ideas, customs, skills, arts, and tools that characterize a group of people.

    Discourse Analysis

    • Discourse analysis studies how language is perceived as meaningful and unified by its users.
    • It analyzes "naturally occurring" language use, and not invented examples.
    • It encompasses a range of approaches for analyzing written, spoken, or signed language use.
    • It focuses on language use beyond the sentence level, examining how language is used in action within different contexts.
    • Types of speech include language-in-action (talk accompanying doing), monologues (speeches, stories), classroom talk (lectures, classes), interviews (job, journalistic, official), service encounters (banks, shops), and organizing and directing people (in the street, work, home).

    Conversation Analysis

    • Conversation analysis examines how speakers achieve smooth turn-taking in conversations.
    • Turn-taking is the basic unit of individual speech.
    • Elements that influence turn-taking include intonation, pauses for breath, body language, phrases or interjections, and silence.
    • Intonation can signal the end of a point, the end of a thought, hesitation, or a need for encouragement.
    • Pauses for breath can signal an opening for conversation or "thinking" time.
    • Body language, like eye contact and gesticulation, can be a strong turn-seeking signal.
    • Phrases or interjections can be used to express reactions to information.
    • Silence can communicate unwillingness to continue, a desire to stop or interrupt communication, or simply a pause for reflection.

    Other Key Concepts

    • Paralanguage refers to non-verbal elements of communication, such as pitch, volume, and intonation, used to modify meaning and convey emotion.
    • Visual communication involves using visual elements to convey ideas and information.
    • Computer-mediated communication (CMC) refers to communication using two or more electronic devices.
    • Literary stylistics focuses on analyzing the style of literary works and the effects of their linguistic features, considering dialogue, accents, descriptive language, figures of thought, grammar, and literary devices like alliteration, assonance, rhyme, parallel structure, and eye rhyme.
    • Persuasion uses language techniques to gain attention, build trust, and motivate action.
    • Critical Discourse Analysis examines how text and talk reproduce social and political domination.
    • Conversationalization describes a style of public discourse that mimics intimacy by adopting features of informal, conversational language.
    • Listening involves decoding sounds linearly, from phonemes to complete texts, and is fundamental for speaking.
    • Teaching listening provides learners with exposure to different varieties and accents, helps them acquire language subconsciously, and offers greater motivation when integrated with other learning activities.
    • Extensive listening involves listening to authentic materials outside the classroom, followed by general comprehension questions.
    • Intensive listening involves detailed comprehension questions following in-class listening.
    • Intensive listening can be disadvantaged by classroom factors such as class size, poor acoustics, and the need for everyone to move at the same pace.
    • Activities like reading aloud with the recording and repeating chunks during pauses are suggested for intensive listening.
    • Speaking is a complex activity involving diverse aspects, its central goal is to enable learners to use English effectively.
    • Listening is another vital component of teaching speaking.

    Second Language Acquisition (SLA)

    • The acquisition of a second language after the first language is already established.
    • Influenced by various factors, including:
      • Native Language
      • Age
      • Exposure
      • Innate Phonetic Ability
      • Identity and Language Ego
      • Motivation
      • Self-esteem
      • Aptitude
      • Risk-taking
    • The most influential factor is the Native Language, but it can be overcome with focused effort.
    • Children under 11-13 have a greater chance of sounding native.
    • Quality and intensity of exposure to a foreign language directly affects proficiency.
    • The ability to distinguish and comprehend sounds is innate.
    • Second language learning creates a new identity for the learner.
    • Learners need to be self-motivated to improve pronunciation.
    • Self-correction techniques involve the learner identifying their mistake with teacher guidance.
    • Self-correction with teacher's help utilizes non-verbal cues to guide the learner toward the correct pronunciation.

    Writing

    • A crucial skill in applied linguistics.
    • Considered a complex and challenging skill for learners.
    • Previously, writing was thought to reflect speaking ability.
    • Now, writing is recognized as a broader skill encompassing communicative competence.
    • Requires idea generation, organization, and translation into readable text.
    • Encompasses various skills, including spelling, punctuation, capitalization, word choice, and appropriate style.

    Reasons for Teaching Writing

    • Reinforces language learning through visual presentation.
    • Promotes language development through the writing process itself.

    Writing as a Skill

    • Essential for tasks such as writing letters or reports.
    • Requires knowledge of punctuation and paragraph structure.

    Types of Writing

    • Narration
    • Description
    • Persuasion
    • Exposition
    • Research Writing
    • Response to Literature
    • Writing for assessment

    Reflexive Writing

    • A personal form of writing for the writer's own use.
    • Examples include postcards to a friend, notes in an agenda, or personal journal entries.

    Extensive Writing

    • Writing for an audience.
    • A general form of writing.

    Writing at Higher Levels

    • Requires a systematic approach:
      • Gathering and organizing relevant information.
      • Structuring information into a logical sequence.
      • Dividing the sequence into sections and paragraphs.
      • Drafting the information in written form.
      • Editing and finalizing the text.

    Beginner - Intermediate Writing Tasks

    • Tasks such as writing radio news bulletins, reports, descriptions, parallel compositions, letters, advertisements, or menus.
    • Altering dictations.

    Intermediate - Advanced Writing Tasks

    • Tasks such as narrative compositions, letters to a newspaper, articles, dialogues, play scripts, expanding headlines into articles, picture compositions, and stories based on picture sequences.

    Reasons for Teaching Reading

    • Reading in English provides learners with insights into grammar structures, vocabulary expansion, idiomatic expressions, punctuation, sentence and paragraph construction, etc.

    Reading Skills to Acquire

    • Scanning
    • Skimming
    • Reading for comprehension
    • Looking for information
    • Reading for general understanding
    • Retaining language chunks
    • Recognizing core words
    • Interpreting word order patterns and their significance
    • Recognizing grammatical word classes, systems, and rules
    • Understanding that different grammatical forms can express the same meaning
    • Recognizing rhetorical form and the communicative functions of texts based on form and purpose
    • Inferring context
    • Making connections and links
    • Deducing causes and effects
    • Distinguishing between literal and implied meanings
    • Recognizing genre conventions

    Extensive Reading

    • Involves rapidly reading large amounts of material or longer texts (e.g., entire books) for general understanding.
    • Focuses on the meaning of the text, rather than the language itself.

    Characteristics of Extensive Reading

    • Students choose their reading materials.
    • It is a supplementary activity.
    • Students read at their own pace and level.
    • Reading for pleasure with diverse material in terms of topic and genre.
    • Materials are within the student's comprehension level.
    • Teachers and students track progress.

    Benefits of Extensive Reading

    • Enhanced language learning in spelling, vocabulary, grammar, and text structure.
    • Increased knowledge of the world.
    • Improved reading and writing skills.
    • Reading for pleasure.
    • A more positive attitude toward reading.
    • Greater chance of developing a reading habit.

    Extensive Reading Tasks

    • Keeping records of what has been read.
    • Creating wall charts for in-class discussions.
    • Writing summaries of the whole text or each chapter.

    Characteristics of Intensive Reading

    • Students work with shorter texts with close guidance from the teacher.
    • Students read for detailed comprehension of the text.

    Main Goals of Intensive Reading

    • Identifying the main idea.
    • Recognizing text connectors.
    • Enhancing vocabulary and grammar knowledge.

    Intensive Reading Activities

    • Matching nouns and verbs.
    • Splitting sentences.
    • Combining sentences.
    • Making summaries.
    • Reordering sentences and paragraphs.
    • Filling gaps.
    • Taking sides.
    • Reading and choosing.
    • Selecting a summary.
    • Comparing versions.
    • Identifying facts and opinions.
    • Focusing on form and style.

    Intensive Reading

    • Involves learners reading in detail with specific learning aims and tasks.

    Language Transfer

    • Speakers or writers applying their native language knowledge to a second language.
    • Can be positive or negative.
    • Positive transfer occurs when the grammar structure of both languages is similar, resulting in correct language production.
    • Negative transfer occurs when speakers and writers transfer items and structures that are not the same in both languages.

    Self-esteem

    • A significant personality factor in SLA, especially considering the cross-cultural aspects of second language learning.

    Motivation

    • Plays a crucial role in SLA.
    • It involves effort, desire, positive attitudes towards second language speakers and learning, and interest in foreign languages in general.

    Attitude

    • An element of motivation.
    • People's decisions to learn a second or foreign language can be influenced by their parents, peers, social environment, ethnic solidarity, etc.

    Aptitude

    • Refers to people's ability to learn languages easily and quickly.
    • All learners have different aptitudes.

    Risk-taking

    • Another personality factor that affects SLA.
    • A critical aspect of successful second language learning as learners need to be willing to try the new language and accept the possibility of making mistakes.

    Collocations

    • Two or more words that often go together.

    Critical Applied Linguistics

    • Also known as the study of second or foreign language learning and teaching.
    • Links the study of language with language learning and teaching.

    Classroom-based Research

    • Investigates language in classrooms.

    Corpus Linguistics

    • Analyzes different kinds of written and spoken texts.

    Learner Autonomy

    • Analyzes how learners approach language learning.

    Linguistics

    • The systematic study of the structure of language and its use.

    Phonetics and Phonology

    • Focuses on the sounds of human languages and their patterns in specific languages, including global sound patterns that make up the prosody and intonation of different languages.

    Morphology

    • Examines the internal structure of words.

    Syntax

    • Describes and explains the ways words are combined into larger structures like sentences.

    Sociolinguistics

    • Researches the uses of language, examining the relationship between language, its users, and its uses.

    Discourse Analysis

    • Analyses extended written and spoken texts to identify how language conveys social meaning.

    Psycholinguistics

    • Studies the mental representations and processes involved in language production and comprehension. Researches the cognitive implications of language structure analysis, learning, and use.

    Cognitive Linguistics

    • Views language as an integral part of cognition, and linguistic phenomena as "motivated" by people's general cognitive abilities and their interactions with the physical and social world.
    • Emphasizes the importance of item-based learning, such as the learning of multiword "chunks," and explores ways to help learners manage the memory challenges involved.

    Prosody and Intonation

    • The rhythm, timing, and tune of speech, are vital components of spoken language.
    • They serve a range of functions, including:
      • Focusing attention on specific parts of a spoken message.
      • Organizing discourse.
      • Signalling syntactic structure.
      • Reflecting the speaker's attitudes and emotions.

    SLA (Second Language Acquisition)

    • Research interests include:
      • Task-based interaction.
      • Feedback.
      • Focus on form in language learning.
      • Socio-cultural perspectives on language learning.
      • Learner autonomy.
      • Acquisition of intercultural competence (including intercultural pragmatics).

    Language Testing and Assessment

    • Primarily concerned with the development, validation, and analysis of language tests.
    • Language assessment focuses on using language assessment in classrooms for learning and teaching purposes.

    Scope of Applied Linguistics

    • Second language theory, second language pedagogy, and their interrelationship.
    • This involves:
      • Understanding the language.
      • How it's learned and used.

    Areas of Applied Linguistics

    • Language teaching and learning.
    • Language testing.
    • Psycho- and Neurolinguistics.
    • Sociolinguistics.
    • Discourse analysis.
    • Computational linguistics.
    • Translation studies.

    Topics of Applied Linguistics

    • Language teaching methodology.
    • Syllabus and material design.
    • Language testing.
    • Language for Specific Purposes (LSP).
    • Second Language Acquisition (SLA).
    • Language policy and planning.
    • Forensic linguistics.
    • Sociolinguistics.
    • Critical discourse analysis.
    • Translation studies.
    • Lexicography.

    Second Language Teaching and Learning

    • Deals with phonology, morphology, lexis, semantics, pragmatics, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, and discourse analysis.

    Grammar

    • The study of the rules governing word combinations and inflections.

    Lexis

    • The study of how the entire word stock of a language is organized.

    Semantics

    • The study of meanings in language.

    Pragmatics

    • The study of meaning in context.

    Discourse

    • Engaging with or becoming part of a particular social or cultural group.

    Impact of Applied Linguistics

    • Determining how and what language should be taught.

    Communicative Competence

    • The ability to use language to communicate successfully.

    Linguistic Competence

    • Knowledge of the language itself.

    Pragmatic Competence

    • The relationship with the context: direct vs. indirect meanings, surface vs. deep structure.

    Discourse Competence

    • The abilities required to create and understand coherent written and spoken discourse.

    Strategic Competence

    • Verbal and non-verbal communication strategies used to compensate for breakdowns in communication due to performance variables or insufficient competence.

    Fluency Competence

    • The linking of ideas, words, and sounds to communicate without hesitation or slowness.

    Confluence

    • The ability to keep a conversation going, understand the conversation, and respond appropriately.

    Applied Linguistics

    • Is the study of language and its relation to human behavior, with a focus on practical applications.
    • Identifies, investigates and offers solutions to language related problems.
    • Includes fields such as Language Acquisition (L1 and L2), Teaching and Learning Foreign Languages, Clinical Linguistics, Educational Linguistics, Lexicography, Machine Translation, Sociolinguistics, Psycholinguistics, Computational Linguistics, and Language pedagogy.
    • Aims to solve real-world problems related to language use.

    Linguistics

    • The scientific study of language and aims to describe the varieties of languages and explain the unconscious knowledge all speakers have of their language.
    • Studies the structure, development, changes, etc., of a particular language and its relationship to other languages.
    • Includes subfields such as phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics.

    Purpose of Linguistics

    • To identify some linguistic knowledge which underlines language behavior.

    Branches of Linguistics

    • Theoretical Linguistics
    • Historical Linguistics
    • Comparative Linguistics
    • Geographical Linguistics
    • Descriptive Linguistics
    • Synchronic Linguistics

    Theoretical Linguistics

    • Examines a language at various levels of analysis, exploring its phonological system, articulation and perception of sounds (phonetics), word formation (morphology), phrases and sentences (syntax), the meaning of linguistic expressions (semantics), and language use (pragmatics).

    Historical Linguistics

    • Studies how languages change diachronically over time and the relationship between different languages.
    • Investigates the causes of language changes and their effects on individual languages and associated languages.

    Comparative Linguistics

    • Studies the correspondences between languages that share a common origin.
    • Helps classify languages into groups based on their shared characteristics.

    Geographical Linguistics

    • Studies the geographical distribution of linguistic forms and usages.
    • Examines regional variations of speech forms and dialects.

    Descriptive Linguistics

    • Focuses on creating dictionaries and grammars, describing the rules of a language.

    Synchronic Linguistics

    • Describes the internal phonological, grammatical, and semantic structures of languages at specific points in time without considering their histories or relationships to other languages.

    Subfields of Linguistics

    • Phonetics
    • Phonology
    • Pragmatics
    • Morphology
    • Syntax
    • Semantics

    Phonetics

    • Deals with the sounds of language, encompassing how they are produced.

    Phonology

    • Focuses on how sounds are organized within a specific language.

    Morphology

    • Explores how sounds are combined to form words, delving into the processes of word formation.

    Syntax

    • Deals with the formation of sentences and words, including the rules governing word order and sentence structure.

    Semantics

    • Examines the meaning of words, sentences, and texts.

    Pragmatics

    • Studies how people comprehend and produce communicative actions or speech acts in specific speech situations.

    First-language education

    • Refers to a child's learning of their home language or languages.

    Additional-language education

    • Can be divided into second language education and foreign language education.
    • Second language education is when someone learns their society’s majority or official language that is not their native language.
    • Foreign language education is when someone learns the language of a different country.

    Clinical linguistics

    • Focuses on the treatment and evaluation of speech and communication impairments, regardless of their origin: hereditary, developmental, or acquired.

    Language testing

    • Involves the assessment and evaluation of language achievement and proficiency, both in first and additional languages and for general and specific purposes.

    Literary stylistics

    • Examines the relationship between linguistic choices and their effects within literary works.

    Critical Discourse Analysis

    • Studies the relationship between linguistic choices and their effects in persuasive uses of language.
    • Analyzes how language can be used to indoctrinate or manipulate and how to counteract these effects through analysis.

    Translation and interpretation

    • Focuses on establishing the principles underlying the perceived equivalence between a stretch of language and its translation and the practices of translating written text and interpreting spoken language.

    Information design

    • Deals with the arrangement and presentation of written language, considering issues related to typography and layout choices, effective combinations of language with other communication forms (pictures, diagrams).

    Lexicography

    • Includes the planning and compiling of both monolingual and bilingual dictionaries and other language reference works, such as thesauri.

    Sociolinguistics

    • Studies language use in society and its socio-cultural context.
    • Examines linguistic indicators of culture and power.

    Code Switching or Code Choice

    • The deliberate change from one manner or style of speaking to another.
    • Used to mark switching from informal to formal situations, between parents and children, to announce specific identities, create certain meanings, and facilitate particular interpersonal relationships.

    Elaborated Codes

    • Used in families and large communities.
    • Speakers need to be explicit to negotiate meaning and make themselves clear.
    • This explicitness is valued by speakers

    Restricted Codes

    • Used in communities that center on physical work.
    • Fixed and inflexible syntactic patterns are used due to a shared subculture and the need to communicate efficiently.
    • Language is predictable as a limited vocabulary is employed.

    Standard Language

    • A variety of a language used by a group of people in their public discourse.
    • It becomes standardized through processes aimed at creating descriptions, grammars, and dictionaries that encode the language in reference works.

    Non Standard

    • Sometimes associated with a language variety used by uneducated speakers or socially disfavored groups.
    • It is not taught in schools and is not represented in written form unless it is a direct quotation from a nonstandard speaker.

    Dialect

    • refers to a regional, community, social group, or occupational group’s distinct way of speaking.
    • Differs from the standard language in terms of pronunciation, syntax, etc.
    • The sum total of local speech characteristics.
    • Any form of speech considered as deviating from norms.

    Prescriptive approach

    • Establishes what is considered correct and incorrect in language.
    • Includes established rules of grammar that should not be broken.
    • It is considered wrong to use the particle “to” after modal verbs, split infinitives, etc.

    Descriptive approach

    • Describes language facts without judgment.
    • Views language as governed by rules.

    Linguistic prescription

    • Aims to:
      • Specify standard language forms either generally or for specific purposes.
      • Explain appropriate styles and registers.
      • Formulate styles and registers for easy teaching and learning.

    Prescription

    • Establishes rules for how language should be used.
    • Includes grammar rules.
    • Applies to spoken, written language, and pronunciation.

    Description

    • Registers and describes language variations, dialects, and styles.

    Accent

    • A pattern or manner of pronunciation.

    Register

    • A form of language used in a particular situation or for a particular purpose.
    • A speaker may use different registers when talking to different people or in different situations.

    Jargon

    • A set of language used by people who work in a particular area or have a common interest.
    • Provides speakers with clear, well-defined, unambiguous terms and a means of marking in-group membership and excluding outsiders.
    Jargon purposes:
    • Provide speakers of specialized domains with clear, well-defined, unambiguous terms to refer to their activities.
    • Provide speakers of a subgroup with a means of marking in-group membership and exclude outsiders.

    Slang

    • Informal words and expressions not considered standard in a speaker’s dialect or language.

    Psycholinguistics

    • A field of linguistics that studies the mental processes involved in the comprehension, production, and acquisition of language.

    Language behavior

    • Activities involving speaking, listening, writing, language, and gestures.

    Language production

    • Expressed through:

    • Oral language behavior

    • Written language behavior

    Language comprehension

    • Expressed through:
      • Speaking
      • Listening
      • Writing
      • Reading

    Language acquisition

    • Includes aspects such as:
      • Textual procedures
      • Sentence procedures
      • Constituent procedures
      • Word procedure
      • Phonemic procedures

    Behaviouristic Language Learning Theory

    • Based on observable behavior in the description and explanation of learning behavior.
    • Emphasis on the environment (verbal and non-verbal) and language learning in shaping language acquisition.

    Metalistic Language Learning Theory

    • Based on linguistic structure and theoretical assumptions, with a focus on the innate capacity of any child to learn any language.

    Communicatve competence

    • The knowledge necessary to use language in social context, encompassing appropriate language use.
    • Includes:
      • Vocabulary and grammar
      • Context in which words are used.

    Components of communicative competence

    • Possibility
    • Feasibility
    • Appropriateness
    • Attestedness

    Linguistic competence

    • The system of linguistic knowledge possessed by all native speakers of a language.
    • Involves the principle for correct sentence formation and the creation of grammatical sentences.

    Universal grammar

    • A theory suggesting that all possible natural human languages share certain properties.
    • Some rules of grammar are inherent in the human brain and manifest without the need for learning or teaching.

    Variety

    • A set of linguistic items with similar distribution.

    P M S S G

    • Phonological
    • Morphological
    • Syntactic
    • Semantic
    • Grammatical

    Phonological

    • Differences in pronunciation (e.g., llave /llave/ – llave /shave/).

    Morphological

    • Variations in word structure.

    Syntactic

    • Differences in word order in sentences.

    Semantic

    • Differences in meaning (e.g., football – soccer).

    Grammatical

    • Differences in grammar structures that can depend on the social status of speakers, age, and gender.

    English as a Native Language

    • Refers to the language of people born and raised in countries where English is the historically first language spoken.

    English as a Foreign Language

    • Refers to English being learned in communities where another language (mother tongue) is spoken and English serves no special purpose.

    English as a Second Language

    • Refers to English language learning in countries where English is the main or official language, and the student’s native language is not.

    Competence

    • Refers to someone's ability, condition, or quality of being competent, it is to know or do something well.
    • Feasibility refers to the practicality of something given the means of implementation.
    • Possibility focuses on whether something is formally achievable or not, disregarding context.
    • Appropriateness measures the suitability of something in a given context, emphasizing the importance of context in language interpretation.
    • Attestedness judges whether something is actually performed or done, considering its actions and implications.
    • Standard refers to a formalized version of a language, typically used in written communication and codified in dictionaries and grammar books.
    • Dialects are variations of a language specific to particular regions or social classes, often differing in pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary.

    Attitudes Towards Language

    • Attitude represents an individual's disposition, opinions, and mental state regarding a topic, including language.
    • Language Attitude encompasses the opinions, ideas, and prejudices speakers hold about language, along with their feelings about their own language variety or others.

    Language Relationships

    • Language Family is a group of languages that originated from the same parent language.
    • Related Languages are distinct languages that can be traced back to a common source.

    Language Families

    • Romance Languages include French, Spanish, Italian, Romanian, and Portuguese.
    • Germanic Languages include German, Norwegian, Swedish, Dutch, Danish, and English.
    • Slavic Languages include Russian, Ukrainian, Polish, and Czech.

    Language Change

    • Reasons for Language Change include cultural shifts, migration (trade, travel, war), new religions, beliefs, values, and behaviors, language spread, geographical expansion, isolation, and borrowing.
    • Borrowings represent the influence of other languages.
    • Isolated/Insolation describes a language unrelated to any others, existing as the sole member of its language family.

    Language Extinction and Revivals

    • Ethnocide refers to the deliberate destruction of a people's culture, exemplified by the experiences of Australian Aborigines, North American Native people, and India. Efforts to revive culture and language have emerged in response.
    • Pidgin Languages are simplified languages that develop as a means of communication between groups lacking a shared language.
    • Genocide refers to the killing of people, illustrated by the fate of Tasmanian tribes.

    English Language Evolution

    • Factors contributing to changes in English's lexicon during the Middle English period include intercommunication, prestige, and necessity.
    • Intercommunication involved communication between monolingual English inhabitants and bilingual members of the ruling class and merchants.
    • Prestige associated the use of French words with the upper classes.
    • Necessity drove the borrowing of lexical items in social, political, and economic fields, reflecting needs among farmers, merchants, servants, defendants, university students, and clergy.

    Speaker Types and Language Use

    • Native Speakers are those born into a language, contrasting with second language speakers who acquire the language through education.
    • English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) refers to communication in English between speakers with different first languages. It acts as a tool for facilitating communication among those who don't share the same native tongue.

    Reasons for English as a Lingua Franca

    • Historical reasons, internal political reasons, external/internal economic reasons, practical reasons, intellectual reasons, and entertainment reasons contribute to English becoming a lingua franca.

    Applied Linguistics

    • Applied linguistics investigates real-world problems where language is involved.

    English Language Circles

    • Inner circle comprises predominantly English-speaking countries.
    • Outer circle encompasses former colonies where English holds official language status.

    Teaching and Learning

    • Teaching involves guiding and facilitating learning, enabling students to acquire knowledge and skills.
    • Learning refers to the process of gaining knowledge or skills through study, experience, or instruction.

    Grammar Translation Method

    • Grammar Translation Method emphasizes grammatical rules, vocabulary memorization, translation of texts, and written exercises.
    • Goal of the Grammar Translation Method is to learn a language for reading its literature.
    • Characteristics of the Grammar Translation Method include detailed grammatical rule analysis, focus on reading and writing, vocabulary based on reading texts, translation exercises, emphasis on accuracy, deductive grammar teaching, minimal attention to pronunciation, instruction in the student's native language, potential for frustration due to tedious memorization and translation, limited teacher demands, absence of teaching theory foundation, lack of rationale or justification, and ease of constructing and scoring tests.
    • Positive Points of the Grammar Translation Method include its usefulness for understanding literal texts, applicability when spoken proficiency is not a priority, minimal teacher training requirements, no special teaching materials needed, and objective test scoring.
    • Positive Points of the Grammar Translation Method also include its success in developing reading comprehension of a second language and its longstanding use as the "traditional method."

    Direct Method

    • Direct Method rejects the use of the student's native language, aiming to teach exclusively through the target language.
    • Direct Method advocates for second language learning similar to first language acquisition. This includes extensive oral interaction, spontaneous language use, no translation between languages, and limited grammatical rules.
    • Charles Berlitz is the founder of the Direct Method.
    • Characteristics of the Direct Method include instruction solely in the target language, focus on everyday vocabulary and sentences, gradual development of oral skills through question-and-answer exercises in small classes, inductive grammar teaching, modeling and practice for new teaching points, concrete vocabulary taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures, abstract vocabulary taught by association of ideas, emphasis on both speech and listening comprehension, and importance of correct pronunciation and grammar.
    • Limitations of the Direct Method include the requirement of native-speaking teachers or those with native-like fluency, dependence on teacher skill rather than textbook, challenges in adhering to strict Direct Method techniques, counterproductiveness of long teacher explanations to avoid using the native language, and difficulty in applying the method to public secondary education.
    • Positive Points of the Direct Method include motivating students with native-speaking teachers as models, focusing on conversational skills, and encouraging students to speak from the first class.

    Natural Language Learning (Natural Approach)

    • Natural Language Learning (Natural Approach) emphasizes immersion in the target language, believing that exposure to meaningful input facilitates acquisition without explanation, grading, or error correction.
    • Natural Language Learning (Natural Approach) emphasizes communicative competency, relaxation in the classroom, and acquisition through communication.
    • Long-term goals represent the desired outcome at the end of the learning process, such as fluent communication in the target language.
    • Short-term goals are specific objectives aimed at achieving certain results within a class period, like practicing a grammar structure or pronunciation rule.
    • Goals of the Natural Approach include developing basic personal communication skills orally (listening to announcements) and written (reading and writing), enhancing academic learning skills orally (listening to lectures) and written (note-taking), advancing beginners to an intermediate level, and fostering comprehension over production.
    • Comprehension before Production Principle suggests that learners should focus on comprehension before attempting to produce language.
    • Input Hypothesis emphasizes the crucial role of comprehensible input in language acquisition.
    • Affective Filter Hypothesis highlights the influence of emotional factors on language acquisition.
    • Monitor Hypothesis suggests that learners develop a conscious language monitor over time.

    Goals of the Natural Approach

    • Develop basic communication skills in everyday situations, both orally and written
    • Develop basic listening skills in response to physical commands

    Stages of Language Learning

    • Preproduction Stage: The learner is silent and absorbs language input; they may respond with gestures or pointing.
    • Early Production Stage: The learner begins to produce single words and short phrases, errors are common, and the teacher usually focuses on meaning and not correction.
    • Speech - Emergent Stage: Learners can participate in simple role-plays, games, and discussions.

    Characteristics of the Natural Approach

    • Emphasizes exposure to the target language, rather than practice of its forms
    • Places importance on comprehension
    • Utilizes informal settings
    • Focuses on creating a positive learning environment with affection and emotional preparedness
    • Learners experience a prolonged pre-production stage before speaking.

    Teacher's Role in the Natural Approach

    • Generate a constant flow of language input, making the classroom engaging and friendly
    • Provide a low affective filter by avoiding error correction and choosing topics of high interest to the students

    Student's Role in the Natural Approach

    • Determines when to speak, what to talk about, and the linguistic expressions to use.

    Goal of Instructional Materials in the Natural Approach

    • Make classroom activities meaningful and relate them to the real world to foster communication among learners.

    Instructional Materials in the Natural Approach

    • Uses realia such as pictures, visual aids, schedules, advertisements, maps, and books.

    The Communicative Approach

    • Begins with the theory that language is communication.
    • Develops communicative competence.

    Main Points of Communicative Language Teaching

    • Emphasizes that language is more than just grammar, it also involves language functions.
    • Learners will be successful if they have enough exposure to the target language and are motivated to use it.

    Task Principle of CLT

    • Activities that involve using language to accomplish meaningful tasks promote learning.

    Meaningful Principle of CLT

    • Language that is meaningful to the learner supports the learning process.

    Communication Principle of CLT

    • Activities that involve real communication promote learning.

    Characteristics of CLT

    • Learner-centered approach
    • Learning a language through using it to communicate
    • Authentic and meaningful communication is the goal of classroom activities
    • Fluency is prioritized
    • Integration of all language skills
    • Communication is a creative process, which includes trial and error.

    Learner's Role in CLT

    • Learners interact with each other, rather than the teacher.
    • Shared responsibility for successful communication is emphasized.

    Teacher's Role in CLT

    • Facilitates communication between all participants in the classroom
    • Acts as a facilitator, researcher, learner, counselor, and group manager
    • Provides individual and group instruction

    Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT)

    • Focuses on using authentic language and engaging students in meaningful tasks, such as role-playing real-life situations.

    Main Point of TBLT

    • Engaging learners in meaningful tasks supports the learning process better than activities focused on grammar exercises.

    Activities Emphasized By TBLT

    • Focuses on real communication and meaningful tasks.

    Real-World Tasks

    • Include activities such as phone conversations, filling out forms, and job applications.

    Pedagogical Tasks

    • Include activities such as grammar exercises, practicing specific grammar structures, and writing activities.

    Positive Points of TBLT

    • Tasks improve learner motivation and promote learning, utilizing authentic language in varied formats and operations.
    • TBLT includes physical activity, partnerships, and collaboration.

    Negative Points of TBLT

    • Teachers must carefully select and assign tasks.
    • Difficult tasks may reduce attention, and fluency may develop at the expense of accuracy.

    English for Specific Purposes

    • Aims to develop the language and discourse needed for particular jobs.

    Reasons We Need Language

    • For communication
    • To transmit knowledge
    • For conveying information and facts
    • For ceremonial purposes
    • To influence people
    • To self-express
    • To express emotions and feelings
    • To form thoughts

    The Meaning of Language

    • The meaning of language is "human speech."
    • It can be described as a system of vocal sounds or combinations of sounds.
    • Can also be described as gestures, signs, nonverbal communication, and a special set of symbols.
    • It represents a system of words and rules.
    • It is a mental phenomenon.

    Grammar

    • It represents a system of elements and rules of phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics.

    Lexicon

    • A "mental dictionary" of the vocabulary stored in the brain.

    Competence

    • Refers to someone's ability, condition, or quality of being competent.

    Language Competence

    • The system of linguistic knowledge possessed by all native speakers of a language.
    • It is the principle of correct sentence formation and the creation of grammatical sentences.

    Functions of Grammar

    • Connect sentences to their correct pronunciation and meaning.
    • Identify and correct mistakes.

    Components of Linguistic Competence

    • Phonetics
    • Phonology
    • Lexicon
    • Morphology
    • Syntax
    • Semantics

    Phonetics

    • The study of the physical production and perception of sounds used in producing language.

    Phonology

    • The mental organization of physical sounds and the patterns formed by the way sounds are combined in a language.

    Morphology

    • The identification, analysis, and description of units of meaning in a language.

    Syntax

    • The structure and formation of sentences.

    Semantics

    • Understanding the meaning of sentences

    Lexicon

    • The wordstock of a language, its vocabulary, including words and expressions.

    Universal Grammar

    • Suggests there are properties that all possible human languages have.
    • Some grammar rules are already in the human brain and manifest themselves without being learned or taught.

    Communicative Competence

    • Deals with language use in society and in sociocultural contexts.

    Components of Communicative Competence

    • Possibility
    • Feasibility
    • Appropriateness
    • Attestedness

    Possibility

    • Refers to the formal aspect of a language.
    • Determines if utterances are grammatically correct or not.

    Feasibility

    • Refers to the process in the mind.
    • Helps with processing language.

    Appropriateness

    • Determines whether something is appropriate or inadequate in relation to the context in which it is used and evaluated.

    Attestedness

    • Refers to the actual occurrence of something.
    • Some constructions may be possible, feasible, and appropriate but do not occur in real usage.

    Linguistic Competence

    • Deals with the language structure, including, grammar, syntax, morphology, and phonology.
    • Focuses on how to use language effectively.
    • Represented by what a person actually knows about a language.

    Communicative Competence

    • The knowledge of communication.
    • Focuses on how a person actually uses a language.
    • Includes four elements: possibility, feasibility, appropriateness, and attestedness.

    The Influence of Communicative Competence

    • Meaning is more important than structure and form.
    • Emphasizes effective communication
    • Reading and writing can begin from the first day.

    The Influence of Communicative Competence

    • The goal is communicative competence, not linguistic competence.
    • Linguistic variation is accepted, and the sequence of units is determined by content, function, and meaning.

    Universal Grammar

    • The human brain contains an innate mental grammar that helps people acquire language.

    Corpus Linguistics

    • Uses computerized techniques to search through large databanks to analyze probability.

    Communicative Approach

    • Aims to develop learners’ ability to use language effectively.

    Context

    • Includes the relevant constraints of the communicative situation that influence language use, language variation, and discourse.

    Discourse Analysis

    • NOT a method for teaching languages
    • A way of describing and understanding how language is used.
    • Analyzes 'naturally occurring' language use.

    Discourse Analysis

    • A branch of linguistics that focuses on language use beyond the sentence.

    Types of Speech

    • Language-in-action
    • Monologues
    • Classroom talk
    • Interviews
    • Service encounters
    • Organizing and directing people

    Language-in-Action

    • Talk accompanying doing.

    Monologues

    • Speeches, stories, and jokes.

    Classroom Talk

    • Lectures, classes, seminars, and tutorials.

    Interviews

    • Job, journalistic, and in official settings.

    Service Encounters

    • Banks, shops, travel agents, etc.

    Organizing and Directing People

    • In the street, work, or home.

    Turn-Taking

    • One of the most significant elements for conversation analysis.

    Turn-Taking

    • The basic unit of individual speech.

    The Goal of Conversation Analysis

    • To understand how speakers achieve smooth turn-taking.

    Elements within Turn-Taking

    • Intonation
    • Pauses for breath
    • Body language
    • Phrases or interjections
    • Silence

    Intonation

    • Dropping intonation can signal the end of a point or thought, or express hesitation.
    • It can also show the speaker needs encouragement from the participants.

    Pauses for Breath

    • Taken as the opening of a conversation or thinking time before answering.

    Body Language

    • Used as a significant turn-seeking signal, such as eye contact and gesticulation.

    Phrases or Interjections

    • Can indicate the speaker's reaction to the information conveyed by participants.

    Silence

    • Can be used to communicate unwillingness to continue the conversation, or the desire to stop or interrupt communication.

    Paralanguage

    • Refers to non-verbal elements of communication, such as pitch, volume of voice, and intonation.
    • Used to modify meaning and convey the emotions of speech-act participants.### Non-Verbal Communication
    • Paralanguage: Non-verbal elements of communication that convey emotion and meaning through elements like pitch, volume, and intonation.
    • Body Language: Movements, gestures, and facial expressions used during speech acts, considered universally understood.
    • Eye Contact: A crucial aspect of non-verbal communication, varies significantly across cultures.
    • Proxemics: Refers to the "space bubble" individuals maintain during conversations, influenced by cultural norms.
    • Kinesthetics: Includes physical touch during conversations, also subject to cultural variations.

    Pragmatics

    • Pragmatics: Focuses on how context influences the meaning of words and the interpretation of linguistic utterances.
    • Pragmatic Competence: The ability to understand the speaker's intended meaning, considering context and speaker's role.
    • Contextual Factors:
      • The Participants: Roles, power dynamics, relationships, and the number of individuals involved in the speech act.
      • The Message Content: How beneficial the message is to the hearer/speaker and its relevance to the relationship between participants.
      • The Kind of Communicative Activity: The nature of the interaction (e.g. job interview, informal conversation, lecture) influencing language behavior and formality levels.

    Cultural Influences on Language

    • Culture: Guides behavior within a community, shaped by family life, and significantly impacts second language learning.
    • Relation Between Culture and Language: The two are intertwined, and one cannot be fully understood without the other.
    • Language: An expression of culture, shaping the speakers' perception of the world and impacting translation.
    • Culture: Includes the ideas, customs, skills, arts, and tools that define a specific group of people.

    Systematizing Context

    • Systematizing Context: The challenge of organizing and categorizing context, often perceived as elusive and complex.

    Discourse Analysis

    • Discourse Analysis: Examines how language stretches are perceived as meaningful and unified by users.
    • Types of Speech: Categories of language usage including:
      • Language-in-action: Talk accompanying actions.
      • Monologues: Speeches, stories, jokes.
      • Classroom Talk: Lectures, seminars, tutorials
      • Interviews: Job, journalistic, official settings.
      • Service Encounters: Interactions at banks, shops, travel agents.
      • Organizing and Directing: Conversations in the street, workplace, or home.

    Turn-Taking

    • Turn-Taking: The basic unit of speech for each speaker, a critical element of conversation analysis.
    • Goal of Conversation Analysis: Understanding how speakers achieve smooth turn-taking.
    • Elements of Turn-Taking:
      • Intonation: Changes in voice tone, signaling the end of a point or a thought.
      • Pauses for Breath: May signal the beginning of a conversation or a thinking pause before responding.
      • Body Language: Non-verbal cues like eye contact and gestures that indicate a desire to speak.
      • Phrases or Interjections: Words like "ah!", "oh!", "wow!", "right!", "OK", or "you see" indicating reactions or a desire to take a turn.
      • Silence: Short periods of silence (1-2 seconds) signaling reluctance to continue the conversation or a desire to interrupt.

    Extensive and Intensive Listening

    • Extensive Listening: Listening activities performed outside the classroom to enhance motivation, followed by context-setting questions.
    • Intensive Listening: Classroom-based listening followed by detailed comprehension questions.

    Disadvantages of Intensive Listening

    • Large class sizes, poor acoustic conditions, and the need to maintain the same pace for all students.### Pronunciation in EFL
    • The main goal of teaching pronunciation in EFL is to promote accent-free speech, but this is often challenging for non-native speakers.
    • Teaching pronunciation classes typically focus on producing comprehensible and natural-sounding speech.

    Aspects that affect pronunciation

    • Native Language: The most influential factor, but it can be overcome through focused effort.
    • Age: Children under 11-13 have a higher chance of sounding like native speakers.
    • Exposure: The quality and intensity of exposure to a foreign language significantly impacts pronunciation.
    • Innate Phonetic Ability: Refers to an "ear" for language.
    • Identity and Language Ego Factors: Students need to be aware of the second identity they learn with the target language.
    • Motivation: A strong desire and concern for good pronunciation is key for progress.

    Self-correction Techniques

    • Self-Correction: The teacher should give students a chance to realize their own mistakes.
    • Teacher's Help: The teacher may use facial expressions, gestures, or provide correction options.

    Writing

    • Teaching writing has always been part of applied linguistics.
    • Writing is considered a complex skill, previously believed to reflect knowledge of other language skills.
    • Now, writing is seen as a reflection of overall communicative competence, involving generating ideas, organizing them, and translating them into a readable text.
    • Writing involves various skills, including spelling, punctuation, capitalization, word choice, and style appropriateness.

    Reasons for teaching writing

    • Reinforcement: Students benefit from seeing the language in written form.
    • Language Development: The process of writing helps students learn language.

    Writing as an Activity

    • Writing is a slower, reflective activity.

    Writing as a Skill

    • Knowing punctuation, paragraph construction, and format is necessary for writing letters, reports, and other texts.

    Types of Writing

    • Narration: Telling a story.
    • Description: Detailing a person, place, or thing.
    • Persuasion: Convincing the reader of a particular point of view.
    • Exposition: Explaining a topic or concept.
    • Research Writing: Presenting findings from research.
    • Response to Literature: Analyzing and interpreting a literary work.
    • Writing for Assessment: Demonstrating understanding of a topic or skill.

    Reflexive Writing

    • Writing for personal reflection, such as a postcard to a friend, a journal entry, or a note to oneself.

    Extensive Writing

    • Writing for an audience (general writing).

    Writing at Higher Levels

    • Process:
      • Gathering and organizing relevant information.
      • Structuring into sections and paragraphs.
      • Writing a draft.
      • Editing and finalizing the text.

    Beginner-Intermediate Writing Tasks

    • Writing radio news bulletins, reports, descriptions, parallel compositions, letters, advertisements, and menus.
    • Altering dictations.

    Intermediate-Advanced Writing Tasks

    • Writing narrative compositions, letters to newspapers, articles, dialogues, play scripts.
    • Expanding headlines into newspaper articles.
    • Creating picture compositions and stories based on picture sequences.

    Reasons for teaching reading

    • Reading is beneficial for language students.
    • Exposure to English texts helps students understand grammar structures, expand vocabulary, learn idiomatic expressions, punctuation, sentence and paragraph construction.

    Reading Skills Students Should Acquire

    • Scanning: Quickly looking for specific information.
    • Skimming: Quickly reading for general understanding.
    • Reading for Comprehension: Understanding the main ideas and details.
    • Looking for Information: Finding specific facts or data.
    • Reading for General Understanding: Grasping the overall meaning.
    • Retaining Chunks of Language: Remembering phrases and sentences.
    • Recognizing a Core of Words: Identifying key vocabulary.
    • Interpreting Word Order Patterns: Understanding how words are arranged in sentences.
    • Recognizing Grammatical Word Classes and Rules: Identifying different parts of speech and their functions.
    • Recognizing Different Grammatical Forms: Understanding how meaning can be expressed in different ways.
    • Recognizing Rhetorical Forms: Knowing the ways authors use language for effect.
    • Recognizing Communicative Functions of Texts: Understanding the purpose of different types of texts.
    • Inferring Context: Making guesses about the surrounding information.
    • Inferring Links and Connections: Identifying relationships between ideas.
    • Deduce Causes and Effects: Understanding cause-and-effect relationships.
    • Distinguishing Literal and Implied Meanings: Understanding the literal meaning and any implied or figurative language.
    • Recognizing Genre Conventions: Being aware of the typical features of different genres.

    Extensive Reading

    • Rapid reading of large amounts of material for general understanding, focusing on meaning rather than language.

    Characteristics of Extensive Reading

    • Students choose their own reading materials.
    • It is a supplementary activity.
    • Students read at their own pace.
    • Reading for pleasure is encouraged.
    • Students read different materials in terms of topics and genres.
    • The reading material is within the student's comprehension level.
    • The teacher and students track the student's progress.

    Benefits of Extensive Reading

    • Enhanced language learning in spelling, vocabulary, grammar, and text structure.
    • Increased knowledge of the world.
    • Improved reading and writing skills.
    • Reading for pleasure.
    • More positive attitude toward reading.
    • Higher possibility of developing a reading habit.

    Extensive Reading Tasks

    • Keeping records of what students read.
    • Creating a wall chart for class discussion.
    • Writing summaries of entire texts or chapters.

    Intensive Reading

    • Detailed reading with specific learning aims and tasks.

    Characteristics of Intensive Reading

    • Students work with short texts with teacher guidance.
    • Students read to obtain detailed meaning.

    Main Goals of Intensive Reading

    • Identifying the main idea.
    • Recognizing text connectors.
    • Enhancing vocabulary and grammar knowledge.

    Intensive Reading Activities

    • Matching nouns and verbs.
    • Splitting sentences.
    • Combining sentences.
    • Making summaries.
    • Reordering sentences and paragraphs.
    • Filling gaps.
    • Taking sides.
    • Reading and choosing options.
    • Selecting a summary.
    • Comparing versions.
    • Identifying facts and opinions.
    • Focusing on form and style.

    Second Language Acquisition (SLA)

    • Learning a second language after a first language is established.

    Language Transfer

    • Applying knowledge from the native language to a second language.

    Positive Transfer

    • When the grammar of both languages is similar, leading to correct second-language production.

    Negative Transfer

    • Transferring items and structures that are different in the two languages.

    Self-Esteem

    • An important personality factor in SLA, particularly due to the cross-cultural aspects of learning a second language.

    Motivation

    • Plays a significant role in SLA. It includes effort, desire, favorable attitudes towards second language speakers and learning, and general interest in foreign languages.

    Attitude

    • An element of motivation.
    • People can be influenced in their decision to learn a second language by parents, peers, social environment, ethnic solidarity, and other factors.

    Aptitude

    • Refers to the ability to learn languages easily and quickly.
    • All learners have different levels of aptitude.

    Risk-Taking

    • Another personality factor affecting SLA.
    • Learners need to be willing to try out the new language and take the risk of making mistakes for successful learning.

    Collocations

    • Two or more words that often go together.

    Critical Applied Linguistics

    • The study of second or foreign language learning and teaching.

    Corpus Linguistics

    • It refers to the databank of language that has actually occurred. It is concerned with the patterns and regularities of language use revealed by systematic analysis.

    Applied Linguistics

    • Links the study of language with the teaching and learning of languages.

    Scope of AL

    • Language teaching and learning, language testing, psycho- and neurolinguistics, sociolinguistics, discourse analysis, computational linguistics, translation studies.

    Areas of AL

    • Language teaching methodology, syllabus and material design, language testing, language for specific purposes, SLA, language policy and planning, forensic linguistics, sociolinguistics, critical discourse analysis, translation studies, lexicography.

    Topics of AL

    • Deals with phonology, morphology, lexis, semantics, pragmatics, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, discourse analysis.

    Second Language Teaching and Learning

    • How languages are taught and learned.

    Grammar

    • The study of rules governing word combinations and inflections.

    Lexis

    • The study of how the entire word stock of a language is organized.

    Semantics

    • The study of meanings in language.

    Pragmatics

    • The study of meaning in context.

    Discourse

    • Engaging with or becoming part of a particular social or cultural group.

    Impact of AL

    • How and what languages should be taught.

    Communicative Competence

    • One’s ability to use the language successfully in communication.

    Linguistic Competence

    • One’s knowledge of the language itself.

    Pragmatic Competence

    • Understanding the relationship with the context.
    • Direct versus indirect meanings, surface versus deep structure.

    Discourse Competence

    • The abilities required to create and understand coherent written and spoken discourse.

    Strategic Competence

    • Verbal and non-verbal communication strategies used to compensate for breakdowns in communication due to performance variables or insufficient competence.

    Fluency Competence

    • Linking ideas, words, and sounds to communicate without hesitation or slowness.

    Confluence

    • The ability to keep a conversation going, understand the conversation, and respond appropriately.

    Classroom-based research

    • The area of study that investigates language in classrooms.

    Learner Autonomy

    • The area of study that analyzes how learners approach language learning.

    Linguistics

    • The systematic study of the structure of language and its use.

    Phonetics and phonology

    • Focuses on the sounds of human languages and how they pattern in particular languages, including global sound patterns that make up the prosody and intonation of different languages.

    Morphology

    • Examines the internal structure of words.

    Syntax

    • Describes and accounts for the ways words are grouped into larger structures like sentences.

    Sociolinguistics

    • The study of language, its users, and uses.

    Discourse analysis

    • Analyzes extended written and spoken texts to identify how language is used to convey social meaning.

    Psycholinguistics

    • The study of mental representations and processes involved in language production and comprehension.

    Cognitive linguistics

    • Treats language as an integral part of cognition.

    Prosody and intonation

    • Rhythm, timing, and tune of speech; have a wide range of functions in spoken language.

    SLA (Second Language Acquisition)

    • Includes research on task-based interaction, feedback, focus on form, socio-cultural perspectives on language learning, learner autonomy, and acquisition of intercultural competence.

    Language Testing and Assessment

    • Concerned with developing, validating, and analyzing language tests.

    Corpus linguistics

    • Area of study that analyses different kinds of written and spoken texts.

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    Test your knowledge of applied and theoretical linguistics in this comprehensive quiz. Explore various topics including language acquisition, teaching methodologies, and the branches of linguistics. Ideal for students and enthusiasts looking to deepen their understanding of language studies.

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