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Questions and Answers
What is a function of the density and size of the drainage basin?
Which of the following plants are specifically adapted to very moist environments?
Which process combines both evaporation and transpiration?
What is required for condensation to begin in air that is cooling?
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What factor must be present to initiate precipitation?
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Which correctly describes phreatophytes?
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What is one consequence of measuring precipitation in a watershed?
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Which of the following follows the correct sequence for raindrop formation?
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What shape do contour lines make when they cross a stream or river?
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What type of stream flows all year round?
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What happens when a gaining stream experiences a flood stage?
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What does the term infiltration refer to?
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Which order of channel segments does not increase when a segment of a higher order joins a lower order?
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What is the Vadose Zone?
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What defines Shreve’s Stream Magnitude?
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What term describes water that flows over the land surface as either diffuse or concentrated flow?
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What profound discovery was made by the Apollo 8 astronauts upon viewing the Earth from the Moon?
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What does the term 'hydrologic cycle' refer to?
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Which measurement indicates the maximum amount of moisture the air can hold at a specific temperature?
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What occurs when relative humidity reaches 100%?
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What role does transpiration play in the water cycle?
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How does absolute humidity relate to relative humidity?
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Which term describes a horizontal dug well used for groundwater extraction?
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What happens to the relative humidity if the absolute humidity remains constant while the temperature drops?
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What is the primary purpose of precipitation measurements?
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What is the primary purpose of using the arithmetic method in measuring rainfall?
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Which type of precipitation is caused by the lifting of air associated with low pressure?
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What is a key factor in the placement of a rain gauge?
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Which step is NOT part of the isohyetal method?
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What does the tipping-bucket rain gauge measure to indicate rainfall intensity?
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What defines the isohyetal lines in rainfall measurement?
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Which type of precipitation results from warmer air rising and cooling?
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Which statement about the Thiessen method is true?
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Why is the size of the opening in a rain gauge important?
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In the isohyetal method, what is the first step in constructing the contour map?
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Where is precipitation typically heavier during orographic precipitation?
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What is the consequence of having too many isohyets in the isohyetal method?
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Which of the following techniques aids in adjusting for non-uniform gauge distribution?
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What is a disadvantage of using rain gauges for precipitation measurement?
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What is the main purpose of plotting Thiessen polygons?
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Study Notes
Apollo 8 & Earthrise
- Apollo 8 astronauts were the first humans to orbit the Moon.
- The iconic "Earthrise" photo was taken from the Apollo 8 spacecraft.
- The photo showcases Earth rising above the lunar surface, prompting a reflection on our planet's beauty and uniqueness.
"The Blue Marble"
- The most reproduced image of Earth was taken by the Apollo 17 crew.
- The image, taken in December 1972, captures Earth's vibrant blue color against the black backdrop of space.
- The photo showcased Africa and Arabia prominently.
Qanat & Water Cycle
- Qanat, a traditional irrigation system, is a horizontal underground tunnel for extracting groundwater.
- Hydrology studies the occurrence, distribution, movement, and chemistry of water on Earth.
- Hydrogeology focuses on the interactions between geological materials, processes, and water.
- Geohydrology is primarily a term used in engineering.
- The hydrologic cycle, the continuous movement of Earth's water, involves evaporation, condensation, precipitation, and runoff.
Evaporation
- The process of changing water from liquid to vapor.
- The primary way water returns to the atmosphere.
Humidity
- Absolute humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air (grams per cubic meter).
- Saturation humidity is the maximum water vapor the air can hold at a specific temperature.
- Directly proportional to air temperature.
- Relative humidity is the ratio of absolute humidity to saturation humidity as a percentage.
- As relative humidity approaches 100%, evaporation stops.
- When absolute humidity stays constant, relative humidity increases.
- When relative humidity reaches 100%, further cooling leads to condensation.
Dew Point
- The temperature at which condensation begins.
Transpiration
- Plants continuously pump water from the ground to the atmosphere through transpiration.
- This process involves the movement of water within the plant from roots to leaves.
- Stomata, openings on leaves, allow air exchange.
- The amount of transpiration is influenced by the size and density of the drainage basin.
Plants and Water
- Phreatophytes are plants with taproots reaching the water table.
- Xerophytes are desert plants adapted to survive in arid conditions.
- Hydrophytes are aquatic plants.
Evapotranspiration
- A combined term encompassing evaporation and transpiration.
- Both processes transfer water from the land to the atmosphere.
- Evapotranspiration is often simultaneous in natural environments.
- Lysimeters are large containers used to measure evapotranspiration.
- Lysimeters hold soil and plants, revealing water lost to the atmosphere through these processes.
Condensation
- Cooling air masses, without losing moisture, leads to increased relative humidity.
- When the air reaches saturation (100% relative humidity), condensation begins.
- Condensation requires a surface or nucleus like clay minerals, salts, or combustion products.
Precipitation
- Precipitation is any form of water falling from the atmosphere, including liquid rain or solid snow.
- The following are needed for precipitation:
- Cooling humid air to its dew point temperature.
- The presence of condensation or freezing nuclei.
- Droplet coalescence to form raindrops.
- Large enough raindrops leaving the cloud to avoid evaporation before hitting the ground.
- Precipitation is essential for water availability for evaporation, stream flow, and mitigating risks like forest fires, landslides, and soil erosion.
Precipitation Types
- Cyclonic Precipitation: Caused by rising air associated with converging air into a low-pressure area.
- Convective Precipitation: Occurs when warm air rises and cools, resulting in showers.
- Orographic Precipitation: Caused by air lifting as it moves over mountain barriers.
Rainfall Measurements
- Rain gauges, also known as pluviometers, ombrometers, or hyetometers, directly measure precipitation.
- Remote sensing techniques, like radar systems, aircraft, and satellites, provide indirect precipitation data.
- The opening size of a rain gauge has minimal impact on the catch, except for extremely small openings.
- Strong winds affect gauge catches.
- Rain gauge location is crucial.
- Gauges should be placed close to the ground, away from trees and buildings, in open areas.
- On slopes, gauges should have openings parallel to the slope.
Tipping-Bucket Rain Gauge
- A 30.5 cm diameter rain gauge used by the US Weather Bureau.
- Water from the funnel falls onto a pair of small buckets.
- A 0.25 mm rainfall triggers one bucket to tip, activating the other.
- The tipped bucket's water is collected in a storage container.
- Tipping activates a pen to record on a chart, providing data on rainfall intensity.
- The collected water in the storage container provides total rainfall and acts as a check.
Precipitation Calculations
- Arithmetic Method - Calculates average precipitation by taking the mean of station values when rainfall variation is minimal.
- Isohyetal Method - Adjusts for non-uniform gauge distribution by creating isohyetal maps with contours of equal rainfall.
- Thiessen Method - Uses a weighing factor based on the areas within the drainage basin for each rain gauge, creating polygons around each station.
Stream Hydrographs
- Stream hydrographs show changes in river discharge at a specific location over time.
- Hypothetical storm hydrographs illustrate discharge during a storm, including overland flow, baseflow, direct precipitation, and interflow.
- Gaining streams (effluent) replenish groundwater. They are common in humid regions.
- Losing streams (influent) lose water to groundwater and are more typical of arid regions.
- A stream can be gaining or losing depending on flow conditions.
Stream Types
- Perennial streams flow all year round.
- Intermittent streams flow seasonally.
- Ephemeral streams flow only during heavy rain and immediately afterward.
Stream Contours
- Contour lines crossing a stream form a "V" shape.
- The point of the "V" always points upstream, towards the higher elevation and the source of water flow.
- A "V" pointing down indicates downstream movement.
Stream Ordering
- Strahler's Stream Order classifies channels based on hierarchy.
- A stream's order does not increase when a segment of one order is joined by another of lower order.
Stream Magnitude
- Shreve's Stream Magnitude defines the number of tributaries feeding a channel.
- Magnitude provides a good estimate of relative stream discharge in small river systems.
Water Storage and Movement Terms
- Depression Storage - Temporary storage of precipitation as water or ice on the land surface.
- Overland Flow - Water flowing over the land surface, either dispersed as a sheet flow or concentrated in rills and gullies.
- Infiltration - The process of water entering the subsurface.
- Vadose Zone (Zone of Aeration) - The area below the land surface where soil pores contain both air and water.
- Vadose Water - Water stored in the vadose zone.
- Belt of Soil Water - The top of the vadose zone accessible to plant roots.
- Interflow - Water flowing laterally within the vadose zone.
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Description
Test your knowledge on Apollo 8's historic moon orbit and the famed 'Earthrise' photo that changed our perspective on Earth. Additionally, explore the significance of the 'Blue Marble' image taken by Apollo 17 and concepts related to qanat irrigation and the water cycle. Dive into this engaging quiz that covers space photography and hydrology.
