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Apicomplexans: Characteristics and Life Cycle
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Apicomplexans: Characteristics and Life Cycle

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Questions and Answers

What is a characteristic feature of Euglenids?

  • Having membrane-bounded sacs (alveoli) just under the plasma membrane
  • Having a single mitochondrion with a kinetoplast
  • Being a parasitic trypanosome
  • Having one or two flagella that emerge from a pocket at one end of the cell (correct)
  • Trypanosoma gambiense causes Chagas' disease.

    False

    Dinoflagellates are abundant components of both marine and freshwater _______________.

    phytoplankton

    Match the following groups with their characteristics:

    <p>Euglenids = Having one or two flagella that emerge from a pocket at one end of the cell Kinetoplastids = Having a single mitochondrion with a kinetoplast Dinoflagellates = Are abundant components of both marine and freshwater phytoplankton Alveolates = Having membrane-bounded sacs (alveoli) just under the plasma membrane</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the disease caused by another pathogenic trypanosome?

    <p>Chagas' disease</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The SAR supergroup is universally accepted as monophyletic.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic feature of Apicomplexans?

    <p>Infectious cells called sporozoites</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Apicomplexans have only asexual stages.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the parasite that causes malaria?

    <p>Plasmodium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ciliates have large ______________________ and small micronuclei.

    <p>macronuclei</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of cilia in Ciliates?

    <p>To move and feed</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following Alveolates with their characteristics:

    <p>Apicomplexans = Parasites of animals Ciliates = Use cilia to move and feed</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the process by which a unicellular organism engulfs another cell, which becomes an endosymbiont and then an organelle in the host cell?

    <p>Endosymbiosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Mitochondria are believed to have evolved by endosymbiosis of a photosynthetic cyanobacterium.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Diatoms have a sexual stage called conjugation.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What composes much of the sediments known as diatomaceous earth?

    <p>Fossilized diatom walls</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the pathogen that causes yeast infections in human females?

    <p>Trichomonas vaginalis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Diplomonads have modified mitochondria called _______________________.

    <p>mitosomes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following protist groups with their characteristics:

    <p>Diplomonads = Have modified mitochondria called mitosomes Parabasalids = Have reduced mitochondria called hydrogenosomes Euglenids = Are photosynthetic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the organelle found in diplomonads that is involved in anaerobic biochemical pathways?

    <p>mitosomes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic shared by most protists?

    <p>They are single-celled</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Protists are classified into only two supergroups: Excavata and SAR.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process by which an organism engulfs another cell, leading to the formation of organelles?

    <p>endosymbiosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Some protists are ______________________, obtaining energy by ingesting or absorbing nutrients.

    <p>heterotrophic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following protist characteristics with their definitions:

    <p>Eukaryotic = Has no nucleus Photosynthetic = Uses chloroplasts for photosynthesis Heterotrophic = Ingests or absorbs nutrients Mixotrophic = Switches between autotrophy and heterotrophy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do some protists obtain nutrients?

    <p>Through both phagocytosis and diffusion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    All protists are autotrophic.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Primary endosymbiosis occurs when a heterotrophic eukaryote consumes a ______________________ cell, leading to the formation of red or green algae.

    <p>bacterial</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is unique about the cytoskeleton of Excavates?

    <p>It has unique properties</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Parabasalids are known to produce oxygen as a byproduct of their energy production

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the disease caused by Trypanosoma?

    <p>African sleeping sickness and Jacques disease</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Euglenozoa have rod-shaped _______________________.

    <p>flagella</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following Excavate subgroups with their characteristics:

    <p>Diplomonads = Parabasalids a) modified mitochondria called microsomes, two nuclei, multiple flagella, and anaerobic energy production = b) reduced number of mitochondria, anaerobic, and produce hydrogen gas as a byproduct</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic feature of Alveolates?

    <p>Presence of alveoli</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Stramenopiles can be only photoautotrophic.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the disease caused by Plasmodium?

    <p>malaria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Dinoflagellates can be found in ______________________ environments.

    <p>freshwater and marine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following Alveolates with their characteristics:

    <p>Dinoflagellates = Have two whip-like flagella Apicomplexans = Include parasites like Plasmodium Ciliates = Have rows of cilia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic feature of Diatoms?

    <p>Presence of a silica test or frustule</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ciliates can only reproduce asexually.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the pigment that gives Golden Algae their characteristic color?

    <p>yellowish</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Brown Algae are found in ______________________ environments.

    <p>marine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process by which an organism engulfs another cell, leading to the formation of organelles?

    <p>Endosymbiosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic feature of Brown Algae?

    <p>They have structures that resemble those of plants</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Red Algae obtain their color from an abundance of the pigment chlorophyll.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process by which Brown Algae undergo an alternation of generations?

    <p>Alternation of generations (where diploid sporophytes produce haploid spores that develop into gametophytes)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Green Algae are characterized by their ______________________ shape.

    <p>filamentous</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of a Green Algae?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following Algae groups with their characteristics:

    <p>Green Algae = Found mainly in freshwater environments Red Algae = Obtain their color from an abundance of phycocyanin Brown Algae = Have structures that resemble those of plants</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Volvox is a type of Brown Algae.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Stramenopiles are characterized by having two flagella, one ______________________ and one hairy.

    <p>smooth</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic feature of amoeboid protists?

    <p>Moving using pseudopodia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ryze area is a subgroup of Uniconta protists.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the common feature of Foraminifera and Radialarians?

    <p>Tests</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Uniconta is a clade that includes protists, animals, and ______________________.

    <p>fungi</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of a Uniconta protist?

    <p>Slime mold</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Entamoebas are parasites of the gastrointestinal system of mammals.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following amoeboid protists with their characteristics:

    <p>Tubulinians = Amoebas that move using cytoplasmic streaming Entamoebas = Parasites of the gastrointestinal system of mammals Foraminifera = Have tests made of calcium carbonate Slime molds = Can form a sporangium and release spores</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the extensions of cytoplasm used for locomotion and capturing prey in amoeboid protists?

    <p>Pseudopodia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the merozoites after they penetrate the red blood cells?

    <p>They divide asexually inside the blood cell and then break out to infect other RBC</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ciliates have only one type of nucleus.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the process by which genetic variation occurs in Ciliates?

    <p>Conjugation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Sporozoites infect _______________________ cells.

    <p>liver</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following stages in the life cycle of Plasmodium with their descriptions:

    <p>Sporozoites = Injected by mosquito into human Merozoites = Formed from sporozoites in liver cells and infect red blood cells Gametocytes = Formed from some merozoites and infect another mosquito Zygote = Formed from gametes in mosquito digestive tract</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic feature of Alveolates?

    <p>They have membrane-enclosed sacs (alveoli) just under the plasma membrane</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Apicomplexans have only asexual stages.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the parasite that causes malaria?

    <p>Plasmodium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Brown Algae are found in _______________ environments.

    <p>deep part of the ocean</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following Alveolates with their characteristics:

    <p>Dinoflagellates = have two flagella twisted around the cell Apicomplexans = parasites of animals, and some cause serious human diseases Ciliates = have membrane-enclosed sacs (alveoli) just under the plasma membrane</p> Signup and view all the answers

    All Brown Algae are unicellular.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process by which Brown Algae undergo an alternation of generations?

    <p>Alternation of generations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the type of life cycle that brown algae Laminaria has?

    <p>Alternation of generations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do protists play in their habitats?

    <p>Both symbiont and producer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Some protists are parasitic.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the disease caused by Pfiesteria shumwayae?

    <p>Fish kills</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Photosynthetic protists are limited by ______________________ in aquatic environments.

    <p>nutrients</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following protist groups with their characteristics:

    <p>Dinoflagellates = Causes red tides Phytoplankton = Important producers that obtain energy from the sun Plasmodium = Causes malaria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the biomass of photosynthetic protists when sea surface temperature increases?

    <p>It decreases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Apicomplexans

    • Are parasites of animals and cause serious human diseases
    • Spread through their host as infectious cells called sporozoites
    • Have a complex of organelles at one end (apex) for penetrating host cells and tissues
    • Have sexual and asexual stages that require two or more different host species to complete
    • Plasmodium is an apicomplexan that causes malaria and requires both mosquitoes and humans to complete its life cycle
    • Approximately 900,000 people die each year from malaria

    Ciliates

    • Are a large and varied group of protists that use cilia to move and feed
    • Have large macronuclei and small micronuclei
    • Genetic variation results from conjugation, a sexual process in which two individuals exchange haploid micronuclei
    • Conjugation is separate from reproduction, which generally occurs by binary fission

    Stramenopila

    • Includes important phototrophs and heterotrophs
    • Most have a "hairy" flagellum paired with a "smooth" flagellum
    • Includes diatoms, golden algae, brown algae, and oomycetes

    Diatoms

    • Are unicellular algae with a unique two-part, glass-like wall of hydrated silica
    • Are a major component of phytoplankton and are highly diverse
    • Fossilized diatom walls compose much of the sediments known as diatomaceous earth
    • Reproduction is mainly asexual

    Euglenozoa

    • Is a diverse clade that includes euglenids and kinetoplastids
    • Some are predatory heterotrophs, photosynthetic autotrophs, and parasites
    • Distinguished by a spiral or crystalline rod of unknown function inside their flagella
    • Euglenids have one or two flagella that emerge from a pocket at one end of the cell
    • Kinetoplastids have a single mitochondrion with an organized mass of DNA called a kinetoplast
    • Include free-living consumers of prokaryotes in freshwater, marine, and moist terrestrial ecosystems
    • Trypanosoma gambiense causes sleeping sickness in humans, and another pathogenic trypanosome causes Chagas' disease leading to congestive heart failure

    SAR

    • Is a supergroup that may have originated by a secondary endosymbiosis event with a red alga
    • Includes the alveolates and the stramenopiles

    Alveolata

    • Are a sub-group of SAR that have membrane-bounded sacs (alveoli) just under the plasma membrane
    • Function of alveoli is unknown
    • Includes dinoflagellates, apicomplexans, and ciliates

    Dinoflagellates

    • Have two flagella and each cell is reinforced by cellulose plates
    • Are abundant components of both marine and freshwater phytoplankton
    • Are a diverse group of aquatic phototrophs, mixotrophs, and heterotrophs
    • Toxic "red tides" are caused by dinoflagellate blooms

    Endosymbiosis and Protist Evolution

    • Endosymbiosis is the process in which a unicellular organism engulfs another cell, which becomes an endosymbiont and then organelle in the host cell
    • Mitochondria are believed to have evolved by endosymbiosis of an aerobic prokaryote
    • Plastids are believed to have evolved by endosymbiosis of a photosynthetic cyanobacterium

    Introduction to Protists

    • Protists are diverse eukaryotic organisms varying in shape, size, and patterns, with different numbers and types of organelles.
    • The kingdom Protista was dismantled in the 1990s, and now protists are classified into four supergroups: Excavata, SAR, Archaeplastida, and Opisthokonta.

    Characteristics of Protists

    • Most protists are unicellular, but some form colonies or are multicellular.
    • They have membrane-bound organelles and a nucleus, making them eukaryotic.
    • Protists have diverse nutritional strategies: photoautotrophy, heterotrophy, and mixotrophy.

    Nutrition and Metabolism

    • Photoautotrophic protists use chloroplasts for photosynthesis.
    • Heterotrophic protists obtain energy by ingesting or absorbing nutrients.
    • Mixotrophic protists, like Euglena, switch between autotrophy and heterotrophy.
    • Some protists use phagocytosis or diffusion to obtain nutrients.

    Reproduction

    • Protists can reproduce asexually or sexually using meiosis and fertilization.
    • Some protists, like kelp, exhibit alternation of generations, where two distinct generations are needed to complete one life cycle.

    Symbiotic Relationships

    • Endosymbiosis is where one organism engulfs another, leading to the formation of organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts.
    • Primary endosymbiosis occurs when a heterotrophic eukaryote consumes a bacterial cell, forming red or green algae.
    • Secondary endosymbiosis occurs when a heterotrophic eukaryote consumes an alga, forming chloroplasts in other protists.

    Protist Super Groups

    • Protists are classified based on morphological and DNA data, including cellular walls, ribosomes, and DNA molecules.

    Excavates

    • Excavates have unique cytoskeleton properties, modified mitochondria, and flagella different from other organisms.

    Diplomonads

    • Diplomonads have modified mitochondria called microsomes with no electron transport chain.
    • They have two nuclei and multiple flagella.
    • They produce energy anaerobically.
    • Example: Giardia lamblia, a parasite found in stagnant water, causes severe diarrhea and vomiting.

    Parabasalids

    • Parabasalids have a reduced number of mitochondria.
    • They are anaerobic and produce hydrogen gas as a byproduct.
    • Example: Trichomonas vaginalis, a sexually transmitted disease, causes burning and itching sensations in women.

    Euglenozoa

    • Euglenozoa have rod-shaped flagella.
    • They have a kinetoplast (a single large mitochondrion with DNA).
    • Example: Trypanosoma, which causes African sleeping sickness and Jacques disease, affects red blood cells, and causes fever and fatigue.

    Neuglenids

    • Neuglenids have a pocket at one end with one or two flagella emerging.
    • They are mixotrophic, able to undergo photosynthesis and ingest other creatures.
    • Example: Euglena, found in pond water, is oval-shaped with a curved excavated side.

    SAR Clade

    • Consists of stramenopiles, alveolates, and rhizarians, and is monophyletic, meaning it has a single common ancestor
    • Originated from a common endosymbiotic event involving a red alga and a heterotrophic eukaryote

    Alveolates

    • Characterized by the presence of alveoli, membrane-bound air pockets that trap respiratory gases
    • Include dinoflagellates, apicomplexans, and ciliates
    • Dinoflagellates can cause red tides and produce toxins that can cause gastrointestinal poisoning in humans
    • Apicomplexans include parasites like Plasmodium, which causes malaria, and have a complex life cycle involving multiple hosts
    • Ciliates have rows of cilia and can reproduce sexually or asexually

    Dinoflagellates

    • Characterized by the presence of two whip-like flagella
    • Found in freshwater and marine environments
    • Can be photoautotrophic, heterotrophic, or mixotrophic
    • Responsible for red tides and can produce toxins that can cause gastrointestinal poisoning in humans

    Apicomplexans

    • Include parasites like Plasmodium, which causes malaria
    • Have a complex life cycle involving multiple hosts
    • Can change surface proteins to evade host immune system, making vaccine development challenging
    • Transmitted through mosquitoes

    Ciliates

    • Characterized by the presence of rows of cilia
    • Can reproduce sexually or asexually through binary fission
    • Have a micronucleus and a macronucleus, involved in conjugation and genetic exchange
    • Paramecium is an example of a ciliate with a complex life cycle involving conjugation and nuclear exchange

    Stramenopiles

    • Characterized by the presence of a hairy flagellum
    • Include diatoms, golden algae, brown algae, and oomycetes
    • Can be photoautotrophic or heterotrophic
    • Have diverse strategies for obtaining energy and nutrients

    Diatoms

    • Characterized by the presence of a silica test or frustule
    • Found in freshwater and marine environments
    • Primary producers, playing a key role in aquatic food chains
    • Have a unique life cycle involving asexual reproduction through binary fission

    Golden Algae

    • Characterized by the presence of flagella and a yellowish pigment
    • Can be photoautotrophic or mixotrophic
    • Can be unicellular or colonial
    • Have a complex life cycle involving sexual reproduction

    Brown Algae

    • Characterized by the presence of a brown pigment
    • Found in marine environments
    • Complex multicellular organisms that can resemble plants
    • Have a unique life cycle involving alternation of generations, with a diploid sporophyte stage and a haploid gametophyte stage.

    Brown Algae

    • Brown algae are multicellular protists with plant-like structures, including holdfast, stipe, blades, and bladders.
    • Holdfast is a root-like structure that anchors the algae to rocks or substrate, but does not absorb nutrients.
    • Stipe is a stem-like structure that holds up the algae.
    • Blades are leaf-like structures that hold photosynthetic cells.
    • Bladders are bubble-like structures that help the algae float upright towards the water's surface.
    • Brown algae undergo alternation of generations, where diploid sporophytes produce haploid spores that develop into gametophytes.
    • Gametophytes produce gametes that fuse to form a zygote, which develops into a sporophyte.
    • Sporophytes produce spores through meiosis, which develop into gametophytes.
    • Brown algae belong to the stramenopile group, characterized by having two flagella, one smooth and one hairy.

    Red Algae

    • Red algae are multicellular protists that obtain their color from an abundance of phycocyanin, which reflects red light.
    • Phycocyanin can also make the algae appear bluish, purple, or green.
    • Some edible varieties of red algae, such as nori, are used in sushi rolls.
    • Most red algae are multicellular, with a few exceptions being single-celled.

    Green Algae

    • Green algae are multicellular protists that live mainly in freshwater, with a few species found in oceans.
    • They are characterized by their filamentous shape, such as in Spirulina and Chlorella.
    • Volvox is a type of green algae studied in biology labs, characterized by its flagellated cells and multicellular structure.
    • Sea lettuce (Ulva) is a type of green algae found in oceans, characterized by its flat, broad, and smooth blades.
    • Caulerpa is another type of green algae found in oceans.
    • Green algae are important contributors to the food chain, providing energy for organisms like fish, snails, and sea urchins.

    Amoeboid Protists

    • Amoeboid protists move using pseudopodia or extensions of their cytoplasm and are a diverse group.

    Characteristics of Ryze Area Protists

    • Ryze area is a subgroup of SAR (superphylum) protists.
    • The name "Ryze" means "root" in Greek, referring to their long, thin cytoplasmic extensions used for locomotion and capturing prey.
    • Examples of Ryze area protists include:
      • Foraminifera, which have a protective structure called a test made of calcium carbonate with perforations that allow pseudopodia to move out.
      • Radialarians, which have tests made of silica, with intricate patterns and shapes, and use pseudopodia for locomotion and capturing food.

    Characteristics of Uniconta Protists

    • Uniconta is a clade that includes protists, animals, and fungi.
    • The common ancestor to all these organisms is still unknown to scientists.
    • Examples of Uniconta protists include:
      • Slime molds, which can be:
        • Acellular, with many cells without plasma membranes and multiple nuclei, forming a sporangium and releasing spores.
        • Cellular, with each amoeba having its own nucleus and plasma membrane, forming aggregates that migrate and feed before reproducing.

    Other Amoeboid Protists

    • Tubulinians (formerly Gemmaceae) are amoebas that move using cytoplasmic streaming, with lobe-like pseudopodia, and are heterotrophic, feeding on other protists, algae, and bacteria.
    • Entamoebas are amoebas that can be parasites of the gastrointestinal system of mammals, including humans, and can cause severe diseases like amoebic dysentery.

    Brown Algae

    • Brown algae are the largest and most complex algae, consisting of multicellular species commonly called “seaweeds”.
    • Giant seaweeds called kelps live in deep parts of the ocean, with a rootlike holdfast that anchors the algae, a stemlike stipe that supports leaflike blades.
    • Brown algae exhibit analogous structures with plants, showing similarities between the two groups.

    Alternation of Generations

    • The life cycle of brown algae involves the alternation of multicellular haploid and diploid forms.
    • Sporophyte (2n) produces unicellular zoospores (n) through meiosis, which develop into heteromorphic male and female multicellular gametophytes (n).
    • Fertilization occurs between gametophytes, resulting in a zygote that grows into a new sporophyte.

    Alveolates

    • Alveolates are a group of organisms characterized by membrane-enclosed sacs (alveoli) just under the plasma membrane.
    • Alveolates include Dinoflagellates, Apicomplexans, and Ciliates.

    Dinoflagellates

    • Dinoflagellates have two flagella twisted around the cell and are reinforced by cellulose plates.
    • They are components of both marine and freshwater phytoplankton, consisting of phototrophs, mixotrophs, and heterotrophs.
    • Dinoflagellates can cause Toxic “red tides”.

    Apicomplexans

    • Apicomplexans are parasites of animals, with some causing serious human diseases.
    • They are spread as infectious cells called sporozoites, which have an apex containing a complex of organelles specialized for penetrating host cells and tissues.
    • Apicomplexans have an organelle called Apicoplast, which has a circular genome similar to chloroplast genome.
    • Apicoplasts' enzymes are a possible malaria drug target.

    Life Cycle of Apicomplexan Plasmodium (Malaria)

    • The life cycle involves two hosts: humans and Anopheles mosquitoes.
    • Sporozoites (n) are injected into humans through mosquito bites, infecting liver cells and dividing into merozoites (n).
    • Merozoites infect red blood cells, causing symptoms in humans.
    • Some merozoites form gametocytes (n), which are then taken up by mosquitoes, where fertilization occurs, and a zygote (2n) forms.
    • The zygote develops into an oocyst, releasing thousands of sporozoites (n) via meiosis, which migrate to the mosquito's salivary gland.

    Ciliates

    • Ciliates use cilia to move and feed, and have two types of nuclei: large macronuclei and small micronuclei.
    • Genetic variation in ciliates results from conjugation, where two individuals exchange haploid micronuclei.

    Protists as Symbionts

    • Protist symbionts can benefit their hosts, such as dinoflagellates that nourish coral polyps, which build reefs.
    • Wood-digesting protists can digest cellulose in the gut of termites.
    • Some protists are parasitic, causing diseases in hosts, such as:
      • Plasmodium, which causes malaria.
      • Pfiesteria shumwayae, a dinoflagellate that causes fish kills (red tides).
      • Phytophthora ramorum, which causes sudden oak death.
      • P.infestans, which causes potato blight, contributing to the Irish famine of the 19th century.

    Protists as Producers

    • Many protists are important producers that obtain energy from the sun.
    • In aquatic environments, photosynthetic protists and prokaryotes are the main producers, upon which other organisms depend for food.
    • Photosynthetic protists in aquatic environments are limited by nutrients.
    • Adding limiting nutrients can cause protist populations to explode, such as when fertilizers used in fields are washed into oceans.
    • An increase in sea surface temperature has led to a decline in the biomass of photosynthetic protists.
    • The growth of phytoplankton communities relies on nutrients delivered from the ocean bottom through the process of upwelling.
    • Warm surface water acts as a barrier to upwelling, affecting phytoplankton growth.

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