AP Government: Core Documents and Principles

• These notes cover key documents, court cases, concepts, trends, ideologies, institutions, constitutional principles, and aspects of civil rights and liberties relevant to AP Government.

Core Documents

• Declaration of Independence: Justifies the colonies' separation from Britain by asserting natural rights, including life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.
• Government legitimacy comes from the consent of the governed.
• Lists grievances against King George III as reasons for the rebellion.
• Articles of Confederation: The initial government framework for the U.S., prioritizing state sovereignty.
• The central government was weak, lacking taxation and commerce regulation powers.
• Absence of executive and judicial branches led to governance inefficiencies.
• Amendments required unanimous consent, hindering changes.
• Constitution: Establishes the structure and powers of the federal government.
• The Supremacy Clause establishes federal law as the supreme law of the land.
• The Commerce Clause grants Congress the power to regulate interstate and international trade.
• The Necessary and Proper Clause enables Congress to enact laws essential for executing its powers.
• The Full Faith and Credit Clause mandates states to respect the laws and judicial rulings of other states.
• Federalist No. 10: Factions are inevitable and must be managed in a large republic with many factions to prevent any single faction from gaining dominance.
• A large republic makes it more difficult for corruption to take hold and allows elected representatives to refine public views.
• Emphasizes pluralism, where competing factions ensure that only the best ideas are enacted.
• Prevents tyranny of the majority through a diverse array of interests and viewpoints.
• Federalist No. 51: Advocates for separation of powers and checks and balances to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful.
• Highlights the importance of a government capable of controlling itself through internal checks.
• Federalist No. 70: Written by Alexander Hamilton, argues for a strong executive leader to ensure accountability and decisive action.
• A single president is more effective than a weak executive, which can lead to inefficiency and disorder.
• Federalist No. 78: Discusses the necessity of an independent judiciary with the power of judicial review to ensure laws align with the Constitution.
• The judiciary is the least dangerous branch because it lacks enforcement power.
• Brutus No. 1: Argues that the Constitution grants excessive power to the central government via the Necessary and Proper Clause and the Supremacy Clause.
• Concerns that Congress cannot effectively represent local concerns due to the country's large size and the multitude of conflicting views.
• Warns that a standing army in peacetime is a threat to liberty and that giving up power is irreversible without force.
• Letter from Birmingham Jail: Written by Martin Luther King Jr., advocates for civil disobedience against unjust laws.
• Argues for the moral duty to resist racial injustice and segregation through peaceful means.

Landmark Court Cases

• Marbury v. Madison: Established judicial review, empowering the Supreme Court to declare laws unconstitutional.
• Strengthened the judiciary's power.
• McCulloch v. Maryland: Affirmed the supremacy of federal laws over state laws and upheld the Necessary and Proper Clause.
• Expanded federal power.
• Schenck v. U.S.: Limited free speech during wartime if it poses a "clear and present danger."
• Established the "clear and present danger" test.
• Engel v. Vitale: Prohibited school-sponsored prayer in public schools.
• Reinforced separation of church and state.
• Gideon v. Wainwright: Guaranteed the right to an attorney in criminal cases.
• Strengthened due process protections.
• Wisconsin v. Yoder: Exempted Amish families from mandatory school attendance laws based on religious grounds.
• Strengthened religious freedom.
• Tinker v. Des Moines: Protected students' rights to symbolic speech in schools, affirming that students do not lose rights at school.
• U.S. v. Lopez: Limited the federal government’s power under the Commerce Clause.
• Reduced congressional overreach.
• New York Times v. U.S.: Strengthened freedom of the press by limiting government censorship, establishing that prior restraint is unconstitutional.
• Roe v. Wade: Legalized abortion under the right to privacy.
• Established abortion rights.
• Brown v. Board of Education: Declared racial segregation in schools unconstitutional.
• Overturned "separate but equal."
• Baker v. Carr: Established the principle of “one person, one vote.”
• Enabled federal courts to hear redistricting cases.
• Shaw v. Reno: Ruled that racial gerrymandering is unconstitutional.
• Limited racial redistricting.
• Citizens United v. FEC: Allowed unlimited political spending by corporations and unions, leading to the rise of Super PACs.
• McDonald v. Chicago: Applied the Second Amendment right to bear arms to the states.
• Expanded gun rights.

Budget and Economics

• Mandatory Spending: Government spending required by law, mainly for entitlement programs, which is difficult to reduce due to legal obligations.
• Discretionary Spending: Government spending approved annually by Congress, including defense, education, and transportation.
• Entitlement Programs: Offer benefits based on eligibility criteria, and are challenging to reform due to political opposition and numerous beneficiaries.
• Supply-Side Economics: Advocates for reducing taxes and regulations to stimulate business investment and economic growth, with benefits "trickling down."
• Demand-Side Economics: Focuses on government spending and consumer demand to drive economic growth through public investment and welfare programs.
• Laissez-Faire Economics (Capitalism): Promotes minimal government intervention, relying on free markets, competition, and private ownership.

Trends in Politics

• Congressional Demographics: Congress has become more diverse in terms of race, gender, and ethnicity, impacting policy priorities.
• Presidential Power: The president's power has expanded, especially in foreign policy and executive actions, often bypassing Congress.
• American Population: Increasing diversity, aging population, and urbanization influence policy demands like healthcare, social security, and infrastructure.
• Voter Turnout: Older, wealthier, and more educated individuals are more likely to vote, while young, low-income, and marginalized groups have lower participation due to various barriers.
• Demographic Voting Patterns: Younger voters and minorities often support progressive policies, while older and rural voters lean conservative.

Political Ideologies

• Liberal: Supports progressive social policies, government intervention in the economy, and expanded civil rights, environmental protection, and social welfare.
• Conservative: Emphasizes tradition, limited government, free-market capitalism, individual responsibility, lower taxes, and strong national defense.
• Radical: Seeks fundamental societal changes, often through revolutionary means, existing on both the far left and far right.
• Moderate: Holds centrist views, balancing conservative and liberal ideologies, and supporting gradual change and bipartisan solutions.
• Libertarian: Advocates for minimal government intervention in economic and personal affairs, supporting free markets and civil liberties.
• Reactionary: Seeks to restore a perceived earlier state of society, opposing progressive changes and favoring strict social order and traditional values.

Linkage Institutions

• Political Parties: Organize to win elections, influence policy, mobilize voters, fund campaigns, and create platforms.
• Democrats support progressive taxation, social welfare, climate action, civil rights, and government intervention.
• Republicans advocate for lower taxes, limited government, free markets, national defense, and traditional values.
• Interest Groups: Influence public policy by advocating for specific causes, using lobbyists to influence lawmakers.
• Media: Acts as a watchdog, informs the public, shapes opinion, provides a platform for debate, and influences elections.
• Elections: Allow citizens to choose representatives, ensure accountability, provide peaceful transitions, and shape policy through participation.

Constitution Principles

• Articles of the Constitution: Outline the structure and powers of the government.
• Amendment Process: Requires proposal by Congress or a national convention and ratification by the states.
• Full Faith and Credit Clause: States must respect the legal decisions of other states.
• Supremacy Clause: Federal law takes precedence over state law.
• Necessary and Proper Clause: Congress can pass laws essential to executing its powers.
• Commerce Clause: Congress regulates interstate and international trade.
• The Constitution addressed issues of the Articles of Confederation by creating a stronger federal government.

Federalism - Division of Power

• Dual Federalism: Features a clear division of responsibilities between state and national governments.
• Cooperative Federalism: Involves collaboration between national and state governments on policy areas.
• Fiscal Federalism: Uses grants to influence state policies.
• Mandates (Unfunded): Federal requirements without funding for implementation.
• Grants:
  • Categorical Grants provide funds for specific purposes with conditions.
  • Block Grants offer general funding with fewer restrictions.
  • Formula Grants are based on specific criteria (e.g., poverty levels).
  • Project Grants involve competitive funding for specific initiatives.
• State Powers: Include education, law enforcement, and marriage laws.
• National Powers: Cover defense, foreign policy, and currency regulation.
• The national government cannot suspend habeas corpus, pass ex post facto laws, or grant titles of nobility.
• Devolution: The transfer of power from federal to state governments, increasing local control.

Judiciary - Interpreting Laws

• Roles and Powers: Interpret laws and ensure constitutionality.
• Checks on Other Branches: Can declare laws or executive actions unconstitutional.
• Judicial Review: Established by Marbury v. Madison, enabling courts to strike down unconstitutional laws.
• Judicial Philosophies:
  • Judicial Activism: Judges interpret laws broadly to address societal changes.
  • Judicial Restraint: Judges follow strict interpretation, deferring to elected bodies.
• Stare Decisis: Courts follow precedent to maintain consistency.
• Precedent: Past rulings guide future judicial decisions.

Legislature - Law Making Powers

• Roles and Powers: Make laws, control spending, and declare war.
• Checks on Other Branches: Override vetoes, approve judicial appointments, and impeach officials.
• Congressional Districts: Redrawn every 10 years after the census.
• Legislative Models:
  • Politico Model: Lawmakers balance delegate and trustee roles.
  • Trustee Model: Legislators vote based on personal judgment.
  • Delegate Model: Legislators vote based on constituents' wishes.
• Differences Between House and Senate:
  • House: 435 members, proportional representation, revenue bills originate here.
  • Senate: 100 members, equal representation, confirms appointments.
• Filibuster: Senate tactic to delay legislation.
• Cloture: Requires 60 Senate votes to end a filibuster.
• Discharge Petition: Forces a bill out of committee for a full vote.

Executive - President

• Roles and Powers: Enforce laws, command the military, and conduct foreign policy.
• Checks on Other Branches: Veto power, appoints judges, and issues executive orders.
• Executive Order: Directives issued by the president without congressional approval.
• Executive Agreement: International agreements made by the president without Senate approval.
• Electoral College: System for electing the president based on state electors.

Bureaucracy - Implementation

• Implementation: Enforces laws and regulations.
• Discretionary Action: Agencies have flexibility in interpreting laws.
• Issues: Inefficiency, red tape, and lack of accountability.
• Types of Agencies:
  • Cabinet Departments: Major federal agencies (e.g., State, Defense).
  • Independent Regulatory Agencies: Oversee specific industries (e.g., FCC, SEC).
  • Government Corporations: Provide services (e.g., USPS, Amtrak).
  • Independent Executive Agencies: Specialized functions (e.g., NASA, EPA).
• Checks: Congress controls funding, and oversight hearings.
• Iron Triangle: Relationship between bureaucracies, interest groups, and Congress.
• Issue Networks: Broader coalitions influencing policy decisions.

Civil Rights and Liberties - Freedoms

• Amendments 1-10 (Bill of Rights): Protect individual freedoms and limit government power.
• Exclusionary Rule: Prohibits illegally obtained evidence in court.
• Free Speech: Protects most speech, excluding threats and incitement to violence.
• Free Exercise Clause: Protects religious practices.
• Establishment Clause: Prevents government endorsement of religion.
• Selective Incorporation: Applies Bill of Rights protections to states.
• 14th Amendment: Ensures equal protection under the law.
• 19th Amendment: Grants women the right to vote.
• Title IX: Prohibits gender discrimination in education.