BIOL212 W4-1 Quiz
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Questions and Answers

What is the primary purpose of using antibiotic combinations during therapy?

  • To rely solely on narrow-spectrum activity
  • To test the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of an antibiotic
  • To enhance the bacteriostatic effect of a single antibiotic
  • To achieve a synergistic killing effect (correct)

What does bactericidal activity refer to?

  • The lowest concentration to inhibit 100% of the organisms
  • Broad-spectrum effectiveness against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria
  • Inhibition of bacterial growth without killing
  • The level of antimicrobial activity that kills the test organism (correct)

Which of the following correctly describes the term 'minimum inhibitory concentration' (MIC)?

  • The lowest concentration that inhibits the growth of an organism (correct)
  • The concentration that kills 99.9% of bacteria
  • The concentration needed for broad-spectrum activity
  • The highest concentration of an antibiotic that can inhibit bacterial growth

What distinguishes a broad-spectrum antibiotic from a narrow-spectrum antibiotic?

<p>Broad-spectrum can inhibit both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following scenarios illustrates antibiotic antagonism?

<p>One antibiotic reducing the effectiveness of another antibiotic (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In establishing the efficacy of an antibiotic, what does MBC stand for?

<p>Minimum bactericidal concentration (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the potential benefit of AI in drug screening?

<p>AI can help identify drugs with novel mechanisms efficiently (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How is bacterial growth inhibition evaluated against antimicrobial agents?

<p>Through standardized concentration tests in vitro (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one way to utilize toxins in bacterial treatments?

<p>To inhibit the production of harmful compounds (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which compounds can be used to target cellular inclusions?

<p>Artificial transcription factors (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic defines antibiotics in relation to their effectiveness?

<p>They exhibit selective toxicity targeting pathogens. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of bacteria is known to vary in sensitivity to antibiotics?

<p>Gram-positive bacteria (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do broad-spectrum antibiotics differ from narrow-spectrum antibiotics?

<p>Broad-spectrum antibiotics are effective against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What do ESKAPE pathogens primarily represent?

<p>Antibiotic-resistant pathogens that are difficult to cure. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key factor in the mechanism of action of antibiotics?

<p>They target bacterial cell structures or functions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of genetic technology could be used to target specific bacterial mutations?

<p>CRISPR technology (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect of superbugs makes them particularly concerning in medical treatments?

<p>They possess antibiotic-resistant genes. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do surface proteins play in the context of microbial targeting?

<p>They are potential targets for therapies like antibodies. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which is NOT a potential method for treating antibiotic-resistant infections?

<p>Using traditional antibiotics indiscriminately (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What defines superbugs in the context of modern medicine?

<p>They actively mutate to avoid treatment. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary structural component of most bacterial cell walls?

<p>Peptidoglycan (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which mechanism does NOT contribute to bacterial resistance against beta-lactam antibiotics?

<p>Alteration of cell membrane permeability (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which class of antibiotics primarily inhibits cell wall synthesis?

<p>Beta-lactams (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What contributed to the discovery of penicillin?

<p>The serendipitous observation of bacterial growth inhibition by mold (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a mechanism by which bacteria can develop resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics?

<p>Increased drug affinity for PBPs (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which enzyme class is primarily responsible for the hydrolysis of beta-lactam antibiotics?

<p>Beta-lactamases (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What regulatory role do penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) play in bacteria?

<p>Catalyzing cell wall synthesis (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which historical figure is associated with the development and application of penicillin?

<p>Alexander Fleming (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How can bacteria modify beta-lactam antibiotic resistance through genetic changes?

<p>Point mutations in PBP genes (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the mechanism through which Vancomycin disrupts bacterial cell wall synthesis?

<p>Blocking D-alanine-D-alanine interaction (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following characteristics differentiates bacterial from eukaryotic ribosomes?

<p>Bacterial ribosomes are slightly different in structure (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which class of antibiotics primarily targets bacterial protein synthesis?

<p>Aminoglycosides (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant limitation of administering Vancomycin orally?

<p>Its lack of intestinal absorption (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following organisms has shown intrinsic resistance to Vancomycin?

<p>Lactobacillus (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of antibiotic is most effective as a last line of defense against superbugs?

<p>Vancomycin (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the D-alanine-D-alanine termini in bacterial peptidoglycan synthesis?

<p>They facilitate the cross-linking of peptidoglycan chains (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a common feature of antibiotics that target bacterial ribosomes?

<p>They selectively target bacterial protein synthesis (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which species of Enterococci poses a concern regarding acquired resistance to Vancomycin?

<p>Enterococcus faecium (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary target for aminoglycosides among bacterial cells?

<p>Protein synthesis machinery (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary mechanism through which aminoglycosides inhibit bacterial growth?

<p>Irreversible binding to the 30S ribosomal proteins (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect is directly involved in the mechanism of resistance to quinolones?

<p>Membrane permeability mutations (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the impact of aminoglycosides upon binding to ribosomal proteins?

<p>Production of aberrant proteins (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which chemical structure class does not play a role in the action of quinolones?

<p>Sugar (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What condition must be met for aminoglycosides to effectively reach their target in gram-negative bacteria?

<p>Penetration through the outer membrane (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do newer quinolones compare to original formulations like ciprofloxacin?

<p>They are more active against resistant bacteria. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What unique feature associated with streptomycin's discovery is highlighted?

<p>Only one inventor was recognized with a Nobel Prize. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which process is interfered with by quinolones to disrupt bacterial replication?

<p>DNA gyrase activity (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of bacterial mutations can lead to resistance against quinolones?

<p>Chromosomal mutations in DNA gyrase genes (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do aminoglycosides reach the bacterial cytoplasm?

<p>Via active transport mechanisms (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes the mechanism of sulfonamides in bacteria?

<p>They interfere with folic acid synthesis. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary target of isoniazid in Mycobacterium?

<p>Mycolic acid synthesis. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following antibiotics functions by forming pores in the cytoplasmic membrane?

<p>Daptomycin (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of antibiotic is platensimycin classified as?

<p>Inhibitor of fatty acid biosynthesis (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common feature of nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs)?

<p>They bind to and block reverse transcriptase. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement describes the role of neuraminidase inhibitors in antiviral treatments?

<p>They inhibit the release of new viral particles. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What unique feature do ergosterol inhibitors target in fungi?

<p>Plasma membrane composition. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why do many antifungals need to be administered topically?

<p>Fungi have similar cellular machinery to humans. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the action of fusion inhibitors in antiviral therapy?

<p>They block the attachment of viruses to host cells. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one reason microorganisms can be resistant to antibiotics?

<p>They can inactivate the antibiotic. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does antibiotic overuse contribute to drug resistance?

<p>It selects for resistant strains to thrive. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential method to regain efficacy in antibiotics like vancomycin?

<p>Modifying the structure of the antibiotic. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which feature of bacterial membranes can contribute to antibiotic resistance?

<p>Impermeability to specific antibiotics. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the carbonyl oxygen substitution in vancomycin?

<p>It restores lost activity against resistant strains. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a consequence of the long-term use of the same antibiotics in treatment?

<p>It leads to increased resistance in bacterial populations. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which process is essential in the discovery of new antimicrobial compounds?

<p>Implementing automated combinatorial chemistry. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to antibiotic resistance if an antibiotic is not used for several years?

<p>Resistance may diminish and become less prevalent. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do modifications of current antimicrobial compounds impact treatment strategies?

<p>They can restore or enhance the efficacy of the antibiotics. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following represents a challenge in overcoming antimicrobial resistance?

<p>Emergence of bacteria resistant to all known agents. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does a larger area of inhibition in agar disc diffusion tests indicate?

<p>Greater susceptibility of the organism to the antibiotic (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the broth dilution test, what does the lowest concentration of antibiotic that inhibits bacterial growth refer to?

<p>Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which antimicrobial susceptibility test involves spreading bacteria over an agar surface?

<p>Agar disc diffusion test (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does clavulanic acid play when used in combination with ampicillin?

<p>It inhibits beta-lactamase, extending ampicillin's effectiveness. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is crucial for the standardization of agar diffusion tests?

<p>Concentration of the test bacterium (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main purpose of using computers in drug design related to antimicrobial agents?

<p>To predict interactions with specific microbial structures (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the area of inhibition in antibiotic susceptibility testing?

<p>It correlates with the antibiotic's activity against the bacteria. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) from the minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC)?

<p>MIC determines the lowest concentration inhibiting growth, MBC measures the lowest killing concentration. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which component of a drug combination, such as ampicillin and sulbactam, primarily functions to enhance the efficacy of the primary antibiotic?

<p>Beta-lactamase inhibitor (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic is crucial for the effectiveness of saquinavir against HIV?

<p>It binds to the active site of HIV protease. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Antibiotics

Naturally occurring antimicrobial compounds produced by fungi or bacteria, designed to target pathogens while harming host cells minimally.

Selective Toxicity

An antibiotic's ability to harm pathogens without harming host cells.

Superbugs

Bacteria resistant to a wide range of antibiotics.

Antibiotic Resistance Genes

Genes enabling bacteria to resist the effects of antibiotics.

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Gram-positive Bacteria

A group of bacteria whose cell walls have a thick layer of peptidoglycan, making them more vulnerable to some antibiotics.

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Gram-negative Bacteria

A group of bacteria whose cell walls have a thin layer of peptidoglycan, making them sometimes harder to treat with antibiotics.

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Broad-spectrum antibiotics

Antibiotics effective against a wider range of bacteria, both Gram-positive and Gram-negative.

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Mechanism of action (antibiotics)

The specific way an antibiotic disrupts bacterial processes, effectively targeting particular parts of the bacterial anatomy or physiology.

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ESKAPE pathogens

A group of bacteria exceptionally difficult to treat due to their resistance to antibiotics.

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Antimicrobial compounds

Compounds that combat microbes.

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Antibacterial spectrum

The range of bacteria an antimicrobial drug affects.

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Bacteriostatic activity

Inhibits bacterial growth, doesn't kill them.

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Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC)

Lowest drug concentration stopping bacterial growth.

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Bactericidal activity

Kills bacteria.

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Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MBC)

Lowest drug concentration killing 99.9% of bacteria.

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Antibiotic combinations

Using two or more antibiotics together.

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Antibiotic synergism

Combined effect is better than individual drugs.

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Antibiotic antagonism

Combined effect is weaker than individual drugs.

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Broad-spectrum drug

Antimicrobial that affects many bacteria types.

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Narrow-spectrum drug

Antimicrobial effective against a limited range.

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Cell Wall as a Drug Target

Antibiotics like penicillins and cephalosporins target the bacterial cell wall, specifically the peptidoglycan layer, by interfering with its synthesis.

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Peptidoglycan

A complex polymer found in bacterial cell walls, crucial for its structural integrity and rigidity.

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PBPs (Penicillin-Binding Proteins)

Enzymes responsible for building and cross-linking the peptidoglycan layer of the bacterial cell wall.

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How Penicillin Works

Penicillin inhibits the activity of transpeptidases, enzymes that catalyze the formation of cross-links in peptidoglycan, preventing the cell wall from properly forming.

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Antibiotic Resistance: Mechanism 1

Bacteria can prevent interaction between the antibiotic and its target PBP, preventing the antibiotic from reaching its site of action.

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Antibiotic Resistance: Mechanism 2

Bacteria might change the binding site on PBPs, preventing the antibiotic from binding effectively.

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Antibiotic Resistance: Mechanism 3

Bacteria can produce enzymes called -lactamases that degrade the -lactam ring in antibiotics, rendering them inactive.

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Overproduction of PBPs

One way bacteria become resistant is by producing an excess of PBPs, diluting the effect of the antibiotic.

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Acquisition of a New PBP

Bacteria can acquire a new PBP that's resistant to the antibiotic, rendering the antibiotic ineffective.

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Modification of Existing PBP

Bacteria can modify their existing PBPs through genetic changes, enhancing their function and resisting the antibiotic.

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Vancomycin

A glycopeptide antibiotic that disrupts peptidoglycan synthesis in gram-positive bacteria, considered a last resort for resistant infections.

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How does Vancomycin work?

It binds to the ends of peptidoglycan chains, preventing the formation of cross-links, thus disrupting cell wall synthesis.

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Antibiotic Resistance

The ability of bacteria to survive and multiply in the presence of an antibiotic.

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Protein Synthesis

The process of creating proteins from genetic information, essential for all living organisms.

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Translation

The process of converting genetic information (RNA) into protein sequences.

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Ribosomes

Cellular structures responsible for protein synthesis, where translation takes place.

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Aminoglycosides, Tetracyclines, Macrolides

Examples of antibiotics that target protein synthesis by binding to bacterial ribosomes.

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Aminoglycosides

Antibiotics like streptomycin, kanamycin, and gentamicin that inhibit bacterial protein synthesis by binding to the 30S ribosomal subunit. They cause misreading of mRNA and premature release of the ribosome.

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How do aminoglycosides work?

They enter bacteria through the outer membrane, cell wall, and cytoplasmic membrane, reaching the cytoplasm where they bind to the 30S ribosomal subunit, disrupting protein synthesis.

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What happens when aminoglycosides bind to the 30S subunit?

They cause misreading of the mRNA, leading to the production of faulty proteins. They also cause the premature release of the ribosome from mRNA, halting protein synthesis.

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Quinolone Mechanism of Action

Quinolones inhibit bacterial DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV, enzymes critical for DNA replication, recombination, and repair.

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Why are quinolones important?

They are a widely used class of antibiotics that target bacterial DNA replication, making them effective against a range of infections.

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What are growth factor analogs?

These are drugs that resemble essential growth factors but don't function the same way in the cell, effectively 'fooling' the bacteria.

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How are growth factor analogs effective?

By mimicking essential growth factors, they disrupt crucial metabolic pathways in bacteria, hindering their growth and survival.

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What's the effect of quinolone resistance?

Mutations in the genes encoding DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV, decreased drug uptake, or overexpression of efflux pumps can make bacteria resistant to quinolones.

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Streptomycin Discovery

Streptomycin, the first aminoglycoside antibiotic, was discovered in 1943 from Streptomyces griseus.

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Selman Waksman and Albert Schatz

They co-discovered Streptomycin, but a dispute arose over patent royalties and the Nobel Prize, which was awarded only to Waksman.

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Antimetabolites

Substances that interfere with the synthesis or function of essential metabolites in target organisms, often mimicking their structure.

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Folic Acid Synthesis Inhibitors

Antibiotics like sulfonamides that block the synthesis of folic acid, a vital nutrient for bacteria.

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Isoniazid

An antibiotic that targets the synthesis of mycolic acid, a unique component of Mycobacterium cell walls.

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Platensimycin

A new class of antibiotic that directly inhibits fatty acid biosynthesis, a crucial process for bacterial growth.

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Nucleoside Analogs

Antiviral drugs that resemble natural nucleosides, preventing viral DNA replication.

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Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors

Antiviral drugs that target the enzyme reverse transcriptase, essential for the replication of retroviruses, like HIV.

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Protease Inhibitors

Antiviral drugs that block viral proteases, enzymes responsible for cleaving viral proteins into functional components.

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Fusion Inhibitors

Antiviral drugs that prevent viruses from fusing with host cells, the first step in infection.

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Neuraminidase Inhibitors

Antiviral drugs that target the enzyme neuraminidase, involved in the release of new virus particles from infected cells.

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Antimicrobial Drug Resistance

A microbe's ability to withstand the effects of a drug that would normally kill or inhibit it.

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Reasons for Natural Resistance

Microbes can be naturally resistant to antibiotics due to factors like impermeability to the drug, inactivation of the antibiotic, modification of the target site, development of a resistant biochemical pathway, or active pumping out of the antibiotic.

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Antibiotic Use and Resistance

Frequent antibiotic use selects for resistant bacteria, leading to an increase in their population.

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Minimizing Resistance

We can minimize antibiotic resistance by using antibiotics only when necessary, choosing the correct drug, and completing the full course of treatment.

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New Treatment Strategies

Developing new antibiotics, modifying existing ones, and utilizing automated drug discovery methods are crucial to combat antimicrobial resistance.

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Vancomycin Modification

By chemically altering vancomycin, we can restore its effectiveness against bacteria that have developed resistance to the original compound.

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Combinatorial Chemistry

Automated methods are used to rapidly synthesize and screen large libraries of potential drug candidates, accelerating drug discovery.

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Natural Product Screening

Examining natural sources like soil bacteria for novel antibiotics is a promising approach.

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Platensimycin Discovery

Platensimycin, a new antibiotic discovered from the soil bacterium Streptomyces platensis, shows promise in fighting antibiotic-resistant bacteria.

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Drug Resistance Mechanisms

Bacteria evolve resistance through various mechanisms like altering the drug target, producing enzymes that inactivate the drug, or acquiring genes that confer resistance.

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Drug Design for Microbial Targets

Computers can now be used to design molecules that specifically interact with microbial structures, like the active site of an enzyme. This approach has led to the development of drugs like saquinavir, which targets HIV protease.

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Drug Combinations: Synergism

Combining different drugs can be more effective than using each drug individually. This happens when the drugs synergize, meaning their combined effect is greater than the sum of their individual effects.

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Drug Combinations: Clavulanic Acid

Clavulanic acid is a drug that inhibits -lactamase, an enzyme that breaks down -lactam antibiotics. It is often combined with ampicillin to prevent the breakdown of ampicillin and enhance its effectiveness.

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Agar Disc Diffusion Test

A standard method to test antibiotic susceptibility. A standardized bacterial culture is spread on agar, and antibiotic-impregnated disks are placed on the agar. The diameter of the zone where bacteria don't grow is measured, which correlates with the MIC.

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Broth Dilution Test

Another method for determining MIC. Serial dilutions of an antibiotic are mixed with bacteria. After incubation, the lowest antibiotic concentration that prevents bacterial growth is the MIC.

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Antibiotic Susceptibility Testing

Methods like agar disc diffusion and broth dilution are used to determine the susceptibility of bacteria to specific antibiotics. The results help guide treatment decisions.

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What does the size of the zone of inhibition indicate ?

The larger the zone of inhibition, the more susceptible the organism is to the antibiotic. The size of the zone is directly proportional to the activity of the antibiotic.

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How is the MIC value determined ?

By standardizing the test conditions for agar diffusion tests, the area of inhibition is proportional to the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) value.

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Why is it important to determine the MIC?

The MIC helps clinicians select the appropriate antibiotic dosage and duration of treatment to effectively combat bacterial infection while minimizing potential side effects.

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Study Notes

Superbugs

  • Resistant to a wide range of antibiotics
  • Carry antibiotic resistant genes
  • Extremely difficult to cure
  • Gram-positive examples include Enterococcus faecium and Staphylococcus aureus
  • Gram-negative examples include Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Enterobacter species
  • These are known as ESKAPE pathogens

Deaths from Drug-Resistant Infections

  • Deaths from antimicrobial-resistant infections projected to reach 10 million in 2050
  • Other causes of death include cancer (8.2 million), diabetes (1.5 million), diarrheal disease (1.4 million), road traffic accidents (1.2 million)
  • Measles deaths projected at 130,000
  • Cholera deaths projected at 120,000
  • Tetanus deaths projected at 60,000

Antimicrobial Drugs

  • Antibiotics are naturally occurring antimicrobial compounds produced by fungi or bacteria
  • Antibiotics must exhibit selective toxicity, targeting pathogens while leaving host cells unharmed
  • Antibiotics are classified by their mechanism of action, targeting different parts of bacterial anatomy or physiology
  • Susceptibility of microbes to antibiotics varies greatly
  • Gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria differ in their sensitivity to antibiotics
  • Broad-spectrum antibiotics are effective against both types of bacteria

Antibiotics Mechanism of Action

  • Some antibiotics target cell wall synthesis (e.g., cycloserine, vancomycin)
  • Others target DNA gyrase (e.g., quinolones, nalidixic acid)
  • Some target RNA polymerase (e.g., rifampin)
  • Others target protein synthesis (e.g., erythromycin, tetracyclines)
  • Several antibiotics target folic acid metabolism (e.g., trimethoprim, sulfonamides)
  • Some affect cytoplasmic membrane structure and function

Ideas for Superbug Treatment

  • Target mutations using genetic tools like CRISPR
  • Develop radiation therapies specific to microbes
  • Create "nano-robots" that identify and destroy microbes
  • Target surface proteins using antibodies
  • Develop plasma therapies and photo therapies
  • Target signal molecules
  • Control the binding of RNA polymerase to DNA
  • Develop drugs with new mechanisms
  • Inhibit the production of toxins

Antibiotic Usage Frequency

  • Penicillins account for 40% of antibiotic usage
  • Cephalosporins represent 24%
  • Quinolones account for 11%
  • Macrolides account for 12%
  • Other antibiotics account for 13%

Antibiotic Treatment Terminology

  • Antibacterial spectrum: The range of bacteria an antibiotic affects.
    • Broad-spectrum antibiotics affect a wider variety of bacteria
    • Narrow-spectrum antibiotics affect a specific subset of bacteria
  • Bacteriostatic activity: Inhibits bacterial growth
  • Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC): Lowest antibiotic concentration that stops bacterial growth
  • Bactericidal activity: Kills bacteria
  • Minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC): Lowest antibiotic concentration that kills 99.9% of bacteria

Antibiotic combinations/synergism/antagonism

  • Combinations: Can broaden the spectrum, prevent resistance, and/or enhance killing effect
  • Synergism: Combining antibiotics leads to a greater effect than using them individually
  • Antagonism: Combining antibiotics reduces the effect compared to using one individual antibiotic.

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Related Documents

Antimicrobial Drugs PDF
Antimicrobial Drugs: Cell Wall as Drug Target PDF
Antimicrobial Drugs PDF
Antimicrobial Drug Resistance & New Treatment Strategies (PDF)

Description

Explore the impact of superbugs and antimicrobial resistance on global health. This quiz covers the types of drug-resistant pathogens, their implications for future mortality rates, and the role of antibiotics in treating infections. Test your knowledge about ESKAPE pathogens and projected death statistics from antimicrobial-resistant infections.

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