Animal Behaviour in the Anthropocene
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Questions and Answers

What advantage do territory holders generally have over rivals?

  • Larger body size and aggressiveness (correct)
  • More offspring
  • Higher social rank
  • Better access to mates

What does the payoff asymmetry hypothesis suggest about territory holders and intruders?

  • Territory holders prefer to share
  • They value territory equally
  • Intruders are always more motivated
  • Territory holders value territory more (correct)

Which factor is not considered an abiotic influence on habitat selection?

  • Predation risk (correct)
  • Topography
  • Resource availability
  • Climate

How does late gestation affect habitat selection for certain animals?

<p>They select forests for increased energetic demands (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of state-dependent selection in habitat choice?

<p>To maximize access to mates (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does density-dependent habitat selection refer to?

<p>Influence of competitor numbers on habitat choice (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best defines the Ideal Free Distribution theory?

<p>Animals distribute themselves to maximize fitness across patches (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is primarily assessed in the winner effect?

<p>Influence of testosterone on aggression (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During which phase of reproduction do animals typically prefer habitats with high food quality and dense cover?

<p>Farrowing (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What could be a consequence of observing aggressive interactions according to the studies on bystanders?

<p>Increased levels of testosterone (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the magnitude effect in numerical discrimination?

<p>It describes the difficulty in distinguishing differences between larger numbers. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the disparity effect suggest about animal quantity selection?

<p>As the difference between quantities increases, animals are more likely to choose the larger option. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What cognitive performance aspect is highly associated with fitness in individuals?

<p>Higher cognitive ability leading to faster learning and memory of locations. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does increased brain size influence cognition in animals?

<p>It allows for greater behavioral flexibility and innovative strategies for food acquisition. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does reversal learning demonstrate about behavioral flexibility in individuals?

<p>It shows the ability to adapt and learn new associations after conditions change. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does cognition relate to reproduction in female animals?

<p>Females with higher cognitive abilities tend to hatch more clutches annually. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of a 'cache' in an animal's behavior?

<p>To store food for later retrieval. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do phenotypic traits play in mate preference among females?

<p>Females initially prefer males based on phenotypic traits but may change preferences after observing behavior. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which adaptation is NOT typically associated with predators?

<p>Heightened senses (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of ambush hunting?

<p>Surprising prey from a concealed position (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which hypothesis explains how grouping can reduce predation risk?

<p>Dilution Effect Hypothesis (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The 'landscape of fear' refers to:

<p>Prey animals' perception of predation risks in their environment (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What behavior is characterized by prey actively defending themselves against predators?

<p>Mobbing (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of optimal theory, what do organisms strive for?

<p>Achieving an optimal balance between benefits and costs in their traits (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following strategies represents a proactive anti-predator behavior?

<p>Group living (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a super-predator?

<p>A predator that affects multiple species through its predation habits (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the 'confusion effect' hypothesis related to grouping behavior?

<p>Predators struggle to single out prey when they move together (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main objective of proactive anti-predator behaviors?

<p>To actively reduce predation risk before confrontation (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does ritualization refer to in the context of signal evolution?

<p>The transition of traits into specialized signals over time (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does sensory exploitation occur in communication?

<p>When senders leverage existing receiver biases for their advantage (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What best describes the concept of habituation?

<p>An individual reduces their response to a repeated stimulus. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of production costs in honest signaling?

<p>They ensure the reliability of the signal's representation (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What advantage do females gain from having a visual preference for orange coloration?

<p>It directly increases their mating opportunities (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which condition would likely favor the development of learning?

<p>A fixed environment with stable conditions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What do badges of honor represent in communication?

<p>Signals of dominance or size indicating hierarchical status (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main principle behind operant conditioning?

<p>Behaviors are shaped by their consequences. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of positive reinforcement?

<p>Giving treats for good behavior. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does imprinting refer to in animal behavior?

<p>Immediate learning that occurs during a short, sensitive period. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about classical conditioning is true?

<p>A neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of negative punishment?

<p>Removing a child’s favorite toy for bad behavior. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of dynamic environments in relation to learning?

<p>Learning is not favored due to unpredictability of conditions. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which hypothesis explains that certain behaviors evolved in environments that are different from current ones?

<p>Novel Environment Hypothesis (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason deceitful signals evolve in communication?

<p>When the costs of false responses are lower than costs of failing to respond (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which signaling method involves the use of multiple senses for communication?

<p>Multimodal Signaling (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of signaling, what outcome does the Net Benefit Hypothesis suggest?

<p>Sensory mechanisms generally yield more benefits than costs (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the fitness outcome for the sender during eavesdropping?

<p>Sender incurs a fitness cost while receiver gains a fitness benefit (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Territory holding advantage

Larger, more aggressive individuals in a species are more likely to successfully defend their territory.

Payoff asymmetry hypothesis

The resident animal values the territory more than rivals, leading to an imbalance in potential gains if they fight.

Winner effect

Winning an aggressive encounter makes an animal more likely to win subsequent encounters.

Habitat selection

Animals choosing where they live based on environmental factors.

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Abiotic factors

Non-living factors influencing habitat choices, like climate and resources

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Biotic factors

Living factors influencing habitat choices, like predation.

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Ideal free distribution

Animals distribute themselves among habitats based on resource availability, avoiding competition.

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Isodar

Line on a graph plotting population density in one habitat against another; shows how animals distribute themselves.

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Predation risk

Animals choosing habitats that minimize the risk of being eaten

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Competition for resources

Animals avoiding areas with high competition for resources to thrive better.

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Numerical Discrimination in Animals

Animals' ability to distinguish between different quantities of items.

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Magnitude Effect

Animals better distinguish small numerical differences.

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Disparity Effect

Animals are better at distinguishing larger differences in quantities.

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Animal Cognition

Animal ability to remember and use information.

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Caching Behavior

Storing food in hidden locations for later retrieval.

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Behavioral Flexibility

Adapting behavior to changes in the environment.

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Reversal Learning

Learning to associate a reward with a different stimulus after previous association has been changed.

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Cognitive Performance and Fitness

Higher cognitive ability leads to quicker learning, innovation, and better memory, increasing an individual's chances of survival and reproduction.

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Predator Adaptations

Features like speed, strength, camouflage, sharp teeth, and claws that help predators locate, capture, and subdue prey.

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Prey Adaptations

Features like camouflage, heightened senses, or behaviors (fleeing, hiding, group living) that help prey avoid predators.

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Ecology of Fear

How the threat of predation influences prey animals' behaviors.

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Landscape of Fear

How prey perceive and respond to differences in predation risk in their environment.

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Dilution Effect Hypothesis

Prey in groups are harder to target for predators.

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Confusion Effect Hypothesis

Moving in groups can confuse predators, making it harder for them to catch prey.

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Selfish Herd Hypothesis

Individuals in a group position themselves to minimize their predation risk by having others between them and the predator.

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Active Social Defense

Prey behaviors (like mobbing and vigilance) to defend against predators when they are present.

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Optimal Theory

Traits that maximize benefits and minimize costs for survival.

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Super-Predator

Predators that have a significant impact on other species through their predation.

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Ritualization

The process where behaviors that are not initially intended as signals evolve into more specialized signals over time, often through natural selection.

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Preexisting bias hypothesis

Signals evolve because receivers have pre-existing biases in their sensory systems that detect some features of the world better than others. This can be exploited by sender signals.

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Sensory exploitation

When a sender creates signals that trigger responses favorable to them, using the receiver's established sensory preferences.

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Honest signaling

Communication where both the sender and receiver obtain a fitness benefit. This often relies on the costs associated with producing or maintaining the signal.

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Production cost

The cost associated with producing an expensive signal, such as energy expenditure or risk.

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Learning

A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience. It helps animals adapt and increase their fitness.

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Dynamic Environment

An environment where conditions are unpredictable, making past experiences unreliable for future outcomes. Learning is less favored in these environments.

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Fixed Environment

An environment with stable and predictable conditions, making past experiences reliable for future outcomes. Learning is favored in these environments.

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Habituation

The reduction or cessation of response to a repeated stimulus. It allows animals to ignore unimportant stimuli and focus on critical cues.

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Imprinting

Rapid learning that occurs in young animals during a short, sensitive period and has long-lasting effects.

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Classical Conditioning

A neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus, resulting in the neutral stimulus eliciting the same response as the unconditioned stimulus.

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Operant Conditioning

A learning process where an animal's behavior is shaped by the consequences it produces (rewards or punishments).

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Positive Reinforcement

Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase behavior. For example, giving a treat for good behavior.

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Deceitful Signaling

A communication strategy where the sender benefits by deceiving the receiver, who incurs a fitness cost. The receiver may respond to a false signal, leading to a disadvantage.

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Novel Environment Hypothesis

A hypothesis suggesting that animals may exhibit behaviors that were beneficial in their ancestral environment, but are less advantageous in their current environment. This is because evolution hasn't caught up yet.

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Net Benefit Hypothesis

Suggests that a sensory mechanism, even though it occasionally leads to fitness losses (due to deceitful signals), is generally beneficial overall. The benefits outweigh the costs.

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Eavesdropping

A communication strategy where a receiver benefits by listening in on the signals of two other individuals. It's a form of indirect communication.

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Multimodal Signaling

Animals often use multiple senses (sight, sound, touch, smell) to communicate more effectively.

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Study Notes

Animal Behaviour in a Changing World

  • Anthropocene: Human activity significantly impacts Earth's ecosystems (climate change, land use, pollutants, invasive species, harvesting).
  • Timescape: The duration of time exhibiting fitness-relevant biotic/abiotic factors is crucial for animals (finding food, avoiding predators, reproduction).
  • Evolutionary trap: Resources perceived as attractive, yet associated with reduced fitness.
  • Human activity influences activity timing, potentially leading to fear and behavioral changes in some species.
  • Ecological effects of novel activity timing can affect individuals, populations, communities and ecosystems.
  • Mismatch hypothesis: Ecological effects occur when species perceive timescape changes differently, causing mismatches in activity timing.

Territoriality

  • Territoriality is the defense of an area.
  • Economic defensibility: Individuals defend territories if benefits outweigh costs (access to resources, fitness benefits).
  • Costs: Time, energy, and potential injury/death.
  • Resource holding potential: An individual's capacity to win resource conflicts.
  • Territory quality impacts survival, with high-quality habitats maintaining telomere length in birds.
  • Male territory holders in mangroves can potentially accelerate their breeding cycle.

Habitat Selection

  • Habitat selection: Animals choose habitats based on biotic and abiotic factors.
  • Biotic factors include predation risk, reproduction, competition for resources.
  • Abiotic factors include climate, topography and resource availability.
  • State-dependent selection: Reproductive needs influence habitat use.
  • Animals might avoid areas with high competition.

Foraging Behaviour

  • Foraging: Animal actions, strategies and decisions for locating, capturing, and consuming food for survival and reproduction.
  • Energy optimization, food availability, predation risk, reproductive needs are all part of foraging strategy.
  • Marginal Value Theorem: Animals spend a certain time in a resource patch before moving to a new one, balancing feeding benefits and costs.
  • Short travel times: Exploit patches for shorter periods.
  • Long travel times: Exploit patches longer to offset travel costs.
  • Factors beyond energy: Predation risk, habitat competition, nutritional needs, etc. influence foraging decisions.

Predation and Anti-Predator Behaviour

  • Predators hunt, capture, and consume prey, often possessing traits for efficient hunting.
  • Prey have adaptations for predator avoidance like camouflage, enhanced senses.
  • Landscape of fear: Predation risk shapes prey behaviour and movement.
  • Anti-predator behaviors: Prey possess various strategies to reduce predation risk, like dilution and confusing predators.
  • Proactive behaviours include dilution and confusing predators
  • Reactive behaviours include mobbing, vigilance or cooperative defenses

Super-predators

  • Super-predators exert significant impact through high predation rates, often targeting high-value species ( e.g. humans impacting deer).

Cognition

  • Cognition includes acquiring, retaining, processing and using information.
  • Mirror self-recognition test: Measures self-awareness.
  • Numerical competency: Ability to recognize and process numerical quantities.
  • Memory and cognition aid survival and skill learning
  • Cognitive performance: Important for fitness, reproduction and innovation.
  • Cache: food storage in a hidden location for later retrieval.

Learning and Cognition

  • Learning: Relatively permanent changes in behaviour due to experience.
  • Evolution of learning: In dynamic environments, learning is less favored/important than static ones.
  • Habituation: Reduced response to repeated stimuli.
  • Classical conditioning: learned association between neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus.
  • Operant conditioning (Trial-and-Error Learning): Learning through consequences of behaviour (rewards and punishments).
  • Social learning: Acquiring knowledge or behaviours from others.
  • Local enhancement: Using other animals' presence at a location as a cue for resources or a potential safer area.

Communication

  • Communication: Information transfer between individuals.
  • Signals: Co-evolved messages containing information to influence behavior.
  • Cues: Unintentional information transfer.
  • Honest signaling: Benefits for both sender and receiver.
  • Deceitful signaling: One party benefits and the other incurs cost.
  • Eavesdropping: One party gains advantage by using signals produced by others, despite signaling being a cost to the producer.
  • Multimodal signaling: Using several senses for communication, adding reliability.
  • Redundant signaling: Employing multiple signals for the same information, providing consistency.

Social Behaviour

  • Collective behaviour: Synchronised movement of individuals.
  • Interaction rules: Non-independent and interdependent movement of individuals
  • Mutual benefit: Interactions favouring both participants.
  • Altruism: Behaviour benefiting others at a personal cost.
  • Spite: Behaviour harming both participants.
  • Reciprocity: helping others in anticipation of future help.
  • Indirect reciprocity: Helping those who might help others later.
  • Prisoner's dilemma: Cooperation vs. defection scenarios.
  • Cooperative breeding: Individuals contribute to raising offspring, exceeding immediate reproductive benefits.
  • Ecological constraints hypothesis: Resources limit breeding opportunities, influencing cooperative breeding decisions.
  • Life-history hypothesis: Individual/group life history patterns/characteristics affect cooperative breeding.

Reproductive Behaviour

  • Intrasexual selection: Competition among individuals of the same sex.

  • Intersexual selection: Selection based on mate choice/traits.

  • Alternative reproductive tactics (ART): Different strategies for reproduction within a population.

  • Conditional ARTs: Flexible strategies responsive to environmental cues

  • Direct and indirect benefits of mating - Female mate choice (material benefits, genes, hormonal adjustment).

  • Runaway selection model: Male traits enhanced through preference, potentially at a cost for the male.

  • Chase-away selection: traits that enhance male attraction to females may reduce overall female fitness.

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