Animal Anatomy & Physiology: Unit I Overview

Unidad I: Generalidades de la anatomía y fisiología de los animales

• Anatomía studies the form, structure, size, location, and relationships of internal and external organs.
• Animal physiology studies the functioning of organs.
• A tissue is a structure formed by differentiated and physiologically coordinated cells.
• An organ is a functional unit performing a specific function.
• An apparatus is a set of organs performing coordinated functions towards a specific purpose.
• A system is a set of organs and similar structures that fulfill a physiological function.
• Topographic terms in anatomy primarily describe the location and direction of body structures.
• In topographic terms, cranial plane signifies direction towards the head.
• In topographic terms, caudal plane signifies direction towards the tail.
• In topographic terms, the frontal plane divides the body into dorsal and ventral sections.
• In topographic terms, the ventral plane signifies away from the vertebral column or near the lower part of the abdominal wall.
• In topographic terms, the dorsal plane signifies near the vertebral column.
• In topographic terms, the medial or sagittal plane is an imaginary plane dividing the body into left and right halves.
• In topographic terms, the plantar plane signifies the caudal surface of the posterior limbs below the hock (corva).
• In topographic terms, the distal plane signifies what is farthest from the root of the limb.
• In topographic terms, the proximal plane signifies what is closest to the root of the limb.

Unidad II: Sistema músculo-esquelético y tegumentario

• Osteology is the branch of anatomy that studies bones.
• The skeleton is a structure formed by bones, supporting and protecting soft tissues.
• Bones are composed of 25% water, 45% minerals, and 30% organic matter.
• Organic substances provide elastic resistance to bones.
• Inorganic substances provide rigidity and hardness to the bones.
• Bone tissue, connective tissue, cartilaginous tissue, bone marrow, vessels, and nerves form bone structures.
• Long bones have the length predominantly over width and thickness.
• Short bones have similar dimensions in length, width, and thickness.
• Flat bones have the length and width predominantly over the thickness.
• Irregular bones have an irregular form.
• An example of a long bone is the femur.
• An example of a short bone includes the tarsal bones.
• An example of a flat bone is the scapula.
• An example of an irregular bone includes vertebrae.
• Bones provide support and protection to soft tissues.
• Bones enable movement.
• Bones participate in hematopoiesis in the bone marrow.
• Bones store calcium and phosphorus.
• The axial skeleton protects internal organs like the brain, spinal cord, and thoracic organs.
• The axial skeleton includes bones of the head, vertebral column, ribs, and sternum.
• The appendicular skeleton includes bones of the anterior and posterior limbs.
• The splanchnic or visceral skeleton encompasses bones located within the viscera.
• The neurocranium protects the brain and sensory organs.
• The splanchnocranium constitutes the skeleton of the face.
• The vertebral column consists of cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal vertebrae.
• Mammals have 7 cervical vertebrae.
• The atlas and axis vertebrae allow head movements.
• Thoracic vertebrae articulate with the ribs.
• Lumbar vertebrae have large and flat transverse processes.
• In adults, sacral vertebrae fuse to form a single wedge-shaped bone called the sacrum.
• Coccygeal vertebrae form the coccyx.
• Sternal or true ribs articulate directly with the sternum.
• Asternal or false ribs do not articulate with the sternum.
• The scapula is part of the anterior limbs.
• The femur is part of the posterior limbs.
• Artrology studies the joints.
• Synarthrosis joints do not present movement.
• Amphiarthrosis possess a median movement.
• Diarthrosis type joints allow a high degree of movement.
• Fibrous joints have fibrous tissue as a means of union.
• Cartilaginous articulation has cartilage as the means of connection.
• Synovial articulation has synovial fluid as the means of union.
• Myology studies the muscles.
• Skeletal muscle features rapid and voluntary contraction.
• Cardiac muscle features rapid and involuntary contraction.
• Smooth muscle features slow and involuntary contraction.
• Muscles react to stimuli through excitability; this allows them to repond to stimuli.
• Contractility allows the muscles to shorten and thicken.
• Extensibility enables muscles to stretch like an elastic band.
• Elasticity allows muscles to return to their original shape after contraction or extension.
• Skeletal muscles facilitate movement by working with bones.
• Skeletal muscles maintain posture providing muscular stability through continuous partial contraction. \
• Skin, in the tegumentary system, is an organ that regulates temperature and protects the organism from the external environment.
• The epidermis is the skin's first defense barrier.
• The dermis is found between the epidermis and hypodermis.
• The hypodermis stores body fat and conserves body temperature.
• Hair in mammals provides thermal insulation, protection, and perception of the environment.
• Feathers in birds provide thermoregulation, flight, camouflage, and communication
• Horns in the integumentary system are bony projections covered with keratin, which provides defense.
• Hooves are developed keratin nails that protect the toes in ungulates.

Unidad III: Sistema digestivo

• The digestive system is a group of organs that break down food into absorbable substances.
• The digestive system generally includes the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine.
• Accessory glands of the digestive system consist of salivary glands, pancreas, and liver.
• Monogastric animals include pigs, horses, dogs, cats, and rabbits.
• Poligastric animals include cattle, sheep, and goats.
• Lips in the mouth of monogastric animals act as a prehensile organ for food.
• Salivary glands, including parotid, mandibular, sublingual, and buccal glands, produce saliva to soften food.
• The tongue in ruminants captures solid and liquid foods, serving as a prehensile organ.
• Deciduous teeth are the first type of teeth to appear in animals
• Permanent teeth last the entire life of the animal
• The pharynx controls food passage towards the esophagus in the digestive system
• The epiglottis in the pharynx prevents food from entering the respiratory tract.
• The esophagus propels the food bolus to the stomach through peristalsis.
• Monogastric animals have a simple stomach.
• Ruminants have a compound stomach with four compartments.
• The stomach of ruminants includes the rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum compartments.
• The rumen in ruminants absorbs water and minerals.
• The rumen ferments food through microorganisms.
• The reticulum in ruminants retains ingested foreign objects.
• The omasum in ruminants absorbs large quantities of water, minerals, and volatile fatty acids.
• The abomasum in ruminants secretes hydrochloric acid and enzymes, digesting carbohydrates and proteins.
• The small intestine includes the duodenum, jejunum, & ileum.
• The duodenum secretes digestive enzymes and receives pancreatic and biliary secretions.
• The jejunum & ileum absorb nutrients.
• The large intestine includes the cecum, colon, and rectum
• The cecum ferments undigested foods, especially cellulose.
• The colon absorbs water and forms feces.
• The rectum stores and expels feces.
• The pancreas produces digestive enzymes and hormones, such as insulin and glucagon.
• The liver detoxifies, regulates blood sugar, synthesizes proteins, and produces bile.
• The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile secreted by the liver.
• Prehension in the digestive system is the movement to bring food into the mouth.
• Bovines use the tongue as prehensile organ.
• Equines such as horses use the tongue as prehensile organ.
• Mastication in the digestive system is the process of grinding food to form a bolus
• Saliva lubricates the bolus, providing enzymatic activity, flavor, protection and pH equilibrium.
• Deglutition is the passage of the food bolus from the mouth to the esophagus.
• Digestion is the transformation of food into simpler substances for its absorption.
• Digestion in ruminants involves fermentation by microorganisms in the rumen and reticulum.
• Rumination involves regurgitation, re-mastication, re-salivation, and re-deglutition of food.
• The avian’s (birds) digestive system consists of the mouth, esophagus, crop, proventriculus, gizzard, small intestine, large intestine, and cloaca.
• The crop of the bird digestive system stores, moistens, and softens food.
• The proventriculus produces gastric juices including pepsin and hydrochloric acid.
• The gizzard is responsible for compressing, grinding, and milling the food.
• The cecum in birds functions in cellulose absorption and digestion.
• The cloaca in birds serves as the final expulsion cavity for feces and urine.

Unidad IV: Sistema respiratorio

• The function of the respiratory system is to incorporate oxygen into the body and expel carbon dioxide.
• the superior (upper) respiratory tract includes the nasal cavity and pharynx
• The inferior (lower) respiratory tract consists of the larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs.
• The nasal cavity purifies, warms, and humidifies the oxygen before it reaches the lungs.
• Paranasal sinuses influence the respiratory system, phonation, heating, and olfaction.
• The nasopharynx region of the pharynx serves only as a passage for air.
• The oropharynx region of the pharynx allows the passage of air and food
• The larynx conducts air and allows phonation.
• The epiglottis in the larynx prevents food from entering the respiratory system.
• The trachea conducts inhaled and exhaled air from the lungs.
• Bronchi and their ramifications lead air to the bronchioles and alveoli.
• The lungs perform gaseous interchange with the blood (hematosis).
• The pleura membrane covers the lungs and prevents friction with the thoracic cavity.
• Alveoli are structures in the lungs responsible for gaseous interchange.
• Inspiration is the stage of respiration where oxygen enters to the lungs.
• Expiration is the stage of respiration when carbon dioxide leaves the lungs.
• The avian respiratory system is characterized by the presence of air sacs that augment respiratory efficiency.
• The air-sacs increase lightness, aid in respiration and avoid temperature increase.

Unidad V: Sistema circulatorio

• The circulatory system consists of the heart, arteries, veins, capillaries, blood, and lymphatic system.
• The function of the circulatory system is to transport respiratory gases, nutrients, wastes, and hormones.
• The heart is located in the mediastinum of the thoracic cavity, between the lungs.
• The heart is formed by the endocardium, myocardium, and pericardium layers
• The heart encompasses two atria and two ventricles cavities.
• The tricuspid and mitral valves prevent blood reflux towards the atria.
• The pulmonary valve prevents blood reflux back into the right ventricle.
• The aortic valve prevents blood reflux back into the left ventricle.
• Systemic circulation is the route of the oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the entire body.
• Pulmonary circulation is a route blood with carbon dioxide from the right ventricle to the lungs.
• Pulmonary circulation is a route blood with carbon dioxide from the right ventricle to the lungs.
• Coronary circulation is the heart's own circulation through coronary arteries and veins.
• Arteries carry oxygenated blood, except for the pulmonary artery.
• Veins carry blood with carbon dioxide, except for pulmonary veins.
• Capillaries perform the exchange of substances between the blood and tissues.
• Blood is composed of plasma and formed elements.
• Red blood cells carry oxygen from the lungs to other parts of the body.
• White blood cells defend the organism against bacteria, viruses, parasites, and fungi.
• Platelets form a platelet plug to prevent bleeding and aid in cicatrization (healing).
• The lymphatic system transports lymph towards the heart, forming part of the immunological system.

Unidad VI: Aparato reproductor

• The internal female reproductive tract consists of the ovaries, oviducts, uterus, cervix, and vagina.
• The external female reproductive organs consist of the vestibule and vulva.
• Ovaries produce eggs and sexual hormones (estrogen and progesterone).
• Follicles in the ovaries produce estrogen.
• The corpus luteum produces progestin.
• The oviducts transport eggs from the ovaries to the womb, where fertilization occurs.
• The uterus comprises uterine horns, uterine body, and uterine neck (cervix).
• Uterine horns facilitate the nesting of the embryo and sperm ascension in the body.
• The uterine neck (cérvix) facilitates sperm to enter for fertilization and also allows fetus exit during childbirth..
• Vagina serves as the birth canal and permits copulation.
• The vestibule is a junction of external and internal organs, sharing space with the urinary system.
• The vulva allows for the copulation, passage of urine and birth canal.
• Mammary glands are modified cutaneous glands that produce milk.
• In bovines, equines, ovines, and caprines, mammary glands are located in the inguinal region.
• Alveoli are structures where milk is synthesized and discharged.
• The male reproductive tract consists of the testicles, epididymis, deferent ducts, accessory glands, and the penis.
• Testicles produce spermatozoa & testosterone.
• The scrotum protects and regulates the temperature of the testicles.
• The epididymis transports, concentrates, matures, and stores spermatozoa.
• Efferent Ducts transport spermatozoa from the epididymis to the urethra.
• The urethra transports urine and semen to the exterior.
• Accessory glands consist of the ampulla, seminal vesicle, prostate, bulbourethral glands.
• Bulbourethral glands cleanse and lubricate the urethra for the passage of the ejaculate.
• The penis expels urine and deposits semen in the female genital tract.
• The prepuce protects the penis.

Unidad VII: Sistema urinario

• The urinary system consists of kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra.
• The urine is a yellowish-clear liquid of water and components discharged from the blood.
• Eliminating urine evacuates metabolics and regulates osmotic pressure.
• Glomerular filtration is a stage in the formation of urine, and occurs in glomeruli.
• Reabsorption is the stage implying needed ingredients.
• Excretion is the stage of the formation in which urination occurs.
• Kidneys produce urine and filter the blood .
• The renal cortex creates the urine through the nephrons
• Structure of the kidneys are cortex, medulla, renal pelvis, calyxes, renal artery, and renal vein.
• The renal cortex produces urine through nephrons.
• The renal medulla enables the reabsorption of water
• The renal pelvis functions as a funnel for the flow of urine to ureter.
• Nephrons are the functional units of kidney.
• Ureters conduct urine from the kidneys to the bladder.
• The bladder stores and expels fluid to the exterior of the body.
• The urethra propels urine outside as one urinates in the process of micturition,.
• Bird urinary systems differ.
• Birds do not have a bladder or urethra, therefore release semisolid matter via the cloaca.

Unidad VIII: Sistema nervioso

• The nervous system is a network of tissues that senses and processes signals to control and coordinate organs.
• The basic structural unit forming the nervous system is neurons.
• The central nervus system (CNS) comprises the brain and spinal cord.
• The peripheral nervous system (PNS) comprises peripheral nerves that enervate tissue and organs.
• The brain controls autonomous functions such as thermal regulation and circulation
• The cerebellum regulates equilibrium and coordinates the movements.
• Respiratory and cardiovalscular functions are controlled by the medulla oblongata.
• Medulla spinal transfers signals from the encephalon to the full body.
• Cranial nerves receive and communicate sensorial information to he CNS .
• Medulla spinal afferents sensorial informatiom from trunk to SNC limbs.
• The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for scenarios by producing noreadrenalina..
• In relaxed scenarios, the nervous system is in the parasympathetic state where storage and maintanence of functions occurs via actelycolina production
• The main structures of the nervous system are dendrites, glial cells, axon, body, pre-synaptic terminal.
• Dendrites on the neurons transmit pulses towards cells.
• Axons conduct signals from the cell to other cells.
• There are three varieties of neuron, including, motor, sensorial and, associative.
• Motor neurons transmit info from nervous system to enact reactions.
• Sensorial neurosn take sensory information of enviroment.
• Association neurons link sensitive and motor ones.
• The transfer of nerve impulses occur from the nervous system to the brain for interpretation and actions.
• Gila cells supply protection to the brain

Unidad IX: Sistema endocrino

• Endocrine System contains the hormones. The hormones transport through vessel to different areas body.
• Hormones produced by them for functions.
• Characteristics of endocrine are ducts discharge hormones outside systems.
• Exocine are sent out by the surface organ.
• Functions of hypothalamus include regulating release hormonal iniphipnosis.
• There are 2 parts of iniphohysis, andoinihipnosis and the neuriphipnosis.
• Adenoiniiih produce STH, TSH, ACTH, FSH, IHandprolactina.
• Eurohihihi produce ornitoxin and antidiueric.
• Tiroides maintain metabolism optimal level.
• The hormones produced here is thyroxin and triiodithyronin hormones.
• Parathormonias produce PTH to regulate calcium,.
• The cortex consists of medulla and codicil.
• The corteza of adrenal is adrenocortotropic and aldosterona,.
• Pancreas functions as a mixture regulates glucose.
• The arias as combination makes ovules.

Overview of animal anatomy and physiology including the study of organs, tissues, and systems. Focus on anatomical terms, including cranial, caudal and frontal planes. Provides an introduction to the structure, function, and relationships within animal bodies.