Animal Anatomy and Physiology Quiz
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Questions and Answers

What is a common skin issue observed in dogs over 5 years old?

  • Demodex mange
  • Squamous cell carcinoma (correct)
  • Eczema
  • Sebaceous cysts

Which type of mite is known to be zoonotic?

  • Sarcoptes (correct)
  • Demodex
  • Cheyletiella
  • Otodectes

Which layer of skin is formed from cells in a timeframe of approximately two weeks?

  • Stratum corneum
  • Dermis
  • Hypodermis
  • Epidermis (correct)

What is the primary function of eccrine sweat glands?

<p>To help regulate body temperature (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following structures in animals demonstrates evolutionary adaptations for survival?

<p>Antlers (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the external ear?

<p>To collect sound wave vibrations and direct them to the eardrum (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What structure links the tympanic membrane to the cochlea in the inner ear?

<p>Ossicles (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the ear is responsible for the sensation of rotational motion?

<p>Semicircular canals (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the inner ear contribute to maintaining balance?

<p>Through the action of otoliths on hair cells (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the tectorial membrane interact with during the process of hearing?

<p>Hair cells (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What causes the hair cells in the macula to bend and generate nerve impulses?

<p>Movement of the otoliths due to gravity (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does sound vibration have on the tympanic membrane?

<p>It causes the membrane to vibrate (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Where are the sensory receptors that convert mechanical vibrations into nerve impulses located?

<p>Inner ear (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the pericardium?

<p>To cover and protect the heart (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which layer of the heart is responsible for muscle contraction?

<p>Myocardium (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What separates the left and right atria?

<p>Interatrial septum (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the sinoatrial (SA) node?

<p>To generate electrical impulses for heartbeats (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which valve allows blood to exit the right ventricle?

<p>Pulmonary valve (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does blood enter the left atrium?

<p>Through pulmonary veins (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What term describes the outermost layer of the heart?

<p>Epicardium (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the atrioventricular (AV) valves?

<p>To prevent backflow of blood into the atria (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the small intestine?

<p>Digestion and absorption of nutrients (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which accessory organ is responsible for producing and storing bile?

<p>Liver (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of hormone is able to cross the cell membrane due to its hydrophobic nature?

<p>Steroid hormone (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of target cells in the endocrine system?

<p>To have specific receptors for hormones (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which gland is often referred to as the 'master gland' due to its regulatory role over other endocrine glands?

<p>Pituitary gland (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a major endocrine gland?

<p>Appendix (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which condition is characterized by excessive hormone production from the adrenal glands?

<p>Cushing's Syndrome (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of joint allows for the greatest range of motion?

<p>Ball and socket joint (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What component of the bone is responsible for the production of red blood cells?

<p>Marrow (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which correctly describes the function of skeletal muscle?

<p>Provides locomotion and manipulation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the epiphyseal plate in long bones?

<p>Allows for the growth of the bone in length (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following muscle types is both striated and involuntary?

<p>Cardiac muscle (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which portion of the eye contains the sensory receptors for vision?

<p>Retina (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of fracture commonly occurs when a bone is subjected to too much pressure?

<p>Compression fracture (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which best describes the role of nociceptors?

<p>Detect pain stimuli (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes the cranial nerves?

<p>They connect the brain to regions of the body outside the spinal cord. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary factor distinguishing flat bones from other types?

<p>Their flat and thin structure (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of muscle primarily operates involuntarily within internal organs?

<p>Smooth muscle (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which component of the skeletal muscle is referred to as the functional unit?

<p>Sarcomere (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which structure anchors a tooth to its socket?

<p>Gomphosis (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the term proprioception?

<p>The ability to sense body position and movement (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What hormone is responsible for raising blood glucose levels?

<p>Glucagon (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a symptom of Cushing's Syndrome?

<p>Pot-bellied appearance (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which hormone is primarily involved in the fight or flight response?

<p>Epinephrine (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common treatment option for Diabetes Mellitus?

<p>Insulin administration (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What typically causes Hyperthyroidism in cats?

<p>Excessive production of thyroid hormones (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What hormone is responsible for lowering blood glucose levels in the body?

<p>Insulin (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following symptoms is NOT typically associated with Diabetes Mellitus?

<p>Nervousness (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common treatment option for Cushing's Syndrome?

<p>Surgical removal of the adrenal gland (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What physiological response is mediated by epinephrine and norepinephrine?

<p>Fight or flight response (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of these disorders is characterized by excessive production of cortisol?

<p>Cushing's Syndrome (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What membrane covers the heart's outer layer?

<p>Pericardium (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the heart is responsible for initiating the heartbeat?

<p>Sinoatrial (SA) node (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which structure divides the left and right ventricles?

<p>Interventricular septum (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of valve is the mitral valve known as?

<p>Bicuspid valve (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which vessel carries blood from the right ventricle to the lungs?

<p>Pulmonary artery (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which structure pauses the electrical impulse in the heart to allow for atrial contraction?

<p>Atrioventricular (AV) node (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the heart muscle is responsible for cardiac muscle contraction?

<p>Myocardium (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens during the first expiration in the avian respiratory system's airflow process?

<p>Air is pushed into the lungs. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which structure serves as the primary site for air storage and gas exchange in birds?

<p>Air sacs (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the tidal volume in respiration?

<p>The volume of air inspired and expired during one breath. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of the seminal vesicle in the male reproductive system?

<p>Provides nutrients to the sperm. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the process of mechanical digestion?

<p>Physical breakdown of food to increase surface area. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do the intercostal muscles play in the respiratory mechanism?

<p>They assist in volume changes in the thoracic cavity. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which component is commonly responsible for the movement of food through the alimentary canal?

<p>Peristalsis (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the air sacs in the avian respiratory system?

<p>Store air and facilitate gas exchange efficiently. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the P wave in an electrocardiogram?

<p>Atrial contraction (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which division of the peripheral nervous system carries impulses away from the central nervous system?

<p>Motor division (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of the myelin sheath?

<p>Improving electrical conduction (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements accurately describes the role of the autonomic nervous system?

<p>Regulates involuntary functions of smooth and cardiac muscles (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of the basic functions of the nervous system?

<p>To enable communication between body parts (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which structure serves as the integrating and control center of the nervous system?

<p>Central nervous system (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of nerve fibers carry impulses toward the central nervous system?

<p>Afferent fibers (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What process involves the exchange of gases between the air in the alveoli and the blood in the pulmonary capillaries?

<p>External respiration (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a function of the meninges?

<p>Generating action potentials (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What component of the brain regulates functions such as swallowing and heart rate?

<p>Medulla oblongata (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement correctly describes the position of the lungs in relation to the tail?

<p>The lungs are cranial to the tail. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the integumentary system?

<p>Preventing water loss and protecting against infection. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes the epidermis from the dermis?

<p>The epidermis is avascular and composed of five layers. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following appendages is considered a part of the integumentary system?

<p>Claws. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which description accurately represents the term 'distal' in anatomical terms?

<p>Farther from the trunk or point of origin. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do sebaceous glands play in the integumentary system?

<p>They secrete substances for waterproofing and lubrication. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What anatomical position describes the relationship of the paw to the body?

<p>Distal from the body. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which skin condition is commonly highlighted as a concern in animal health?

<p>Dermatitis. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What structure behaves as a funnel to collect sound wave vibrations?

<p>External ear (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the ear transmits vibrations from the tympanic membrane to the inner ear?

<p>Ossicles (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of sensory information do the hair cells in the vestibule primarily provide?

<p>Linear motion (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which component bends and generates a nerve impulse in the semicircular canals as the head moves?

<p>Cupula (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the physiological process of hearing, what structure receives vibrations after the tympanic membrane?

<p>Oval window (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What action causes the hair cells to generate a nerve impulse in the macula of the inner ear?

<p>Movement of otoliths (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following structures is NOT directly involved in sound transmission?

<p>Saccule (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Skin layers in dogs

Dogs, like humans, have a layered skin structure, including epidermis (with rapidly dividing cells) and hypodermis (beneath the skin). The hair on various body parts differs in thickness (thin/hair, thick/no-hair).

Skin tumors (dogs)

Dogs older than 5 years are more prone to skin tumors, frequently squamous cell carcinoma (SCC). These tumors often form circular sores that impact the surrounding tissue.

Sweat glands (types)

Dogs have two types of sweat glands: eccrine (temp regulation) and apocrine (empties into hair follicles).

Mange mites

Two types of mites cause mange: Demodex (cigar-shape) and Sarcoptes (round, zoonotic-transmissible).

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Paw pads layers

Paw pads, unlike many other body parts, have complete 5 epidermis layers.

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Bone Classification

Categorization of bones based on their shape.

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Long Bone

Bones longer than they are wide.

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Short Bone

Small, cubed-shaped bones.

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Flat Bone

Relatively flat and short bones.

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Irregular Bone

Bones that don't fit into the other categories.

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Synovial Joint

Freely movable joints with a fluid-filled cavity.

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Cartilaginous Joint

Joints with cartilage connecting bones.

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Fibrous Joint

Immovable or slightly movable joints held by connective tissue.

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Muscle Fiber

Elongated muscle cell.

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Skeletal Muscle

Striated, voluntary muscle, responsible for movement.

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Cardiac Muscle

Striated, involuntary muscle of the heart.

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Smooth Muscle

Non-striated, involuntary muscle found in internal organs.

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Proprioception

Sense of body position and movement.

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Rods

Photoreceptor cells for low-light vision.

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Cones

Photoreceptor cells for color vision and detail.

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External Ear

The outer part of the ear that collects sound waves and directs them to the eardrum.

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Tympanic Membrane

A thin membrane stretched across the ear canal that vibrates in response to sound waves.

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How does sound travel through the ear?

Sound waves cause the tympanic membrane to vibrate, which in turn vibrates the ossicles in the middle ear. The vibrations are then transferred to the oval window of the cochlea, causing fluid inside the cochlea to vibrate. This vibration stimulates hair cells, which send nerve impulses to the brain, where they are interpreted as sound.

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Ossicles

Three tiny bones in the middle ear that amplify and transmit vibrations from the eardrum to the inner ear.

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Equilibrium

The sense of balance, which is maintained by receptors in the inner ear that detect the position and movement of the head.

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Utricle & Saccule

Two sac-like structures in the inner ear that detect linear motion.

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Semicircular Canals

Three fluid-filled tubes in the inner ear that detect rotational motion.

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Crista Ampullaris

A sensory structure located in the ampulla of each semicircular canal that detects rotational movement.

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Glucocorticoids

Hormones like cortisol and cortisone that regulate metabolism and immune function.

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Androgens

Weak sex hormones produced by the adrenal glands.

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Insulin

A hormone produced by the pancreas that lowers blood sugar levels by helping cells absorb glucose.

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What causes Diabetes Mellitus?

Either the pancreas doesn't produce enough insulin, or the body's cells don't respond properly to insulin.

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Hyperthyroidism

Condition where the thyroid gland produces too much thyroid hormone, leading to symptoms like nervousness, weight loss, and increased appetite.

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Small Intestine

The primary site for digestion and absorption of nutrients. It's divided into three sections: duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. It has villi and microvilli to increase surface area for better absorption.

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Large Intestine

The main site for water reabsorption and feces formation. It consists of the cecum, colon, rectum, and anus. It further breaks down food and compacts waste before elimination.

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Liver

Produces bile, a crucial substance for fat digestion. It also filters toxins from the blood and plays a role in nutrient storage.

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Gallbladder

Stores bile produced by the liver. It releases the bile into the small intestine when needed.

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Pancreas

Secretes enzymes that break down proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. It also produces hormones like insulin and glucagon, which regulate blood sugar.

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Endocrine System

A network of glands that produce hormones, chemical messengers that regulate growth, metabolism, and reproduction by traveling through the bloodstream.

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Hormones

Chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands. They travel through the bloodstream to target cells with specific receptors, influencing their activity.

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Target Cells

Cells that have specific receptors for a particular hormone. They respond to the hormone's signal and enact its effects.

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What is the pericardium?

The pericardium is a fibrous sac that encloses the heart, protecting and supporting it. It has two layers: the outer fibrous pericardium and the inner serous pericardium.

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What are the three layers of the heart wall?

The three layers are:

  1. Epicardium: The outermost layer, a thin membrane covering the heart's surface.
  2. Myocardium: The thick middle layer, composed of cardiac muscle responsible for pumping blood.
  3. Endocardium: The innermost layer, lining the heart chambers and valves.
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What makes cardiac muscle unique?

Cardiac muscle has two special properties:

  1. Autorhythmic: It can generate its own electrical impulses, allowing the heart to beat without nerve signals.
  2. Doesn't fatigue easily: Unlike other muscle types, cardiac muscle can work continuously without tiring.
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What are the four heart chambers?

The heart has four chambers:

  1. Right atrium (RA): Receives deoxygenated blood from the body.
  2. Right ventricle (RV): Pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs.
  3. Left atrium (LA): Receives oxygenated blood from the lungs.
  4. Left ventricle (LV): Pumps oxygenated blood to the body.
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What are the main blood vessels connected to the heart?

The main vessels are:

  1. Superior & Inferior vena cava: Deliver deoxygenated blood to the right atrium.
  2. Pulmonary veins: Deliver oxygenated blood to the left atrium.
  3. Pulmonary artery: Carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs.
  4. Aorta: Carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the body.
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What are the types of heart valves?

There are two types of valves:

  1. Atrioventricular (AV) valves: Between the atria and ventricles, allowing one-way blood flow from atrium to ventricle.
  2. Semilunar valves: Located at the exit of each ventricle, controlling blood flow into arteries.
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What is the sinoatrial (SA) node?

The SA node is a group of specialized cardiac muscle cells located in the right atrium. It acts as the heart's natural pacemaker, generating electrical impulses that trigger each heartbeat.

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What is the atrioventricular (AV) node?

The AV node is another group of cells located in the atrioventricular septum. It delays the electrical impulse briefly to allow the atria to fully contract before the ventricles contract.

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External Ear Function

Collects sound waves and directs them towards the eardrum.

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Middle Ear Function

Amplifies and transmits vibrations from the eardrum to the inner ear.

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Inner Ear Function

Contains sensory receptors that convert vibrations into nerve impulses for sound and balance.

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Equilibrium Sense

A mechanical sense that helps maintain balance by tracking head position and movement.

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Vestibule

Two sac-like spaces (utricle and saccule) in the inner ear that detect linear motion.

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Cranial vs. Caudal

Cranial refers to the head end of an animal's body, while caudal refers to the tail end.

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Rostral

Rostral is a directional term used for structures located towards the nose or mouth.

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Dorsal vs. Ventral

Dorsal refers to the back or upper surface of an animal, while ventral refers to the belly or lower surface.

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Medial vs. Lateral

Medial refers to structures closer to the midline of the body, while lateral refers to structures further away from the midline.

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Proximal vs. Distal

Proximal refers to structures closer to the body's central axis, while distal refers to structures further away.

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Superficial vs. Deep

Superficial refers to structures closer to the surface of the body, while deep refers to structures further below the surface.

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Integumentary System

The integumentary system includes the skin and its appendages (like hair, claws, and glands).

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Epidermis vs. Dermis

The epidermis is the outer layer of skin, while the dermis is the deeper layer.

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Pericardium

A fibrous sac that encloses and protects the heart. It has two layers: the outer fibrous pericardium and the inner serous pericardium.

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Epicardium

The outermost layer of the heart wall, a thin membrane.

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Myocardium

The middle layer of the heart wall, composed of cardiac muscle. It's responsible for pumping blood.

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Endocardium

The innermost layer of the heart wall, a membrane lining the chambers and valves.

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Atria

The two upper chambers of the heart that receive blood.

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Ventricles

The two lower chambers of the heart that pump blood out.

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SA node

A group of specialized cells in the right atrium that acts as the heart's pacemaker, generating electrical impulses for each heartbeat.

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AV node

A group of cells in the atrioventricular septum that slightly delays the electrical impulse to allow the atria to contract fully before the ventricles.

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Glucagon

A hormone produced by the pancreas that raises blood glucose levels by promoting glycogen breakdown in the liver.

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Diabetes Mellitus

A condition where either the pancreas doesn't produce enough insulin or the body's cells don't respond properly to insulin, leading to high blood sugar levels.

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What is the function of the nervous system?

The nervous system is the body's main control and communication system. It uses electrical and chemical signals to allow for quick responses to changes inside and outside the body.

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What are the two main components of the nervous system?

The nervous system is divided into the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord, while the PNS includes nerves that extend from the brain and spinal cord.

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What are the two divisions of the PNS?

The PNS is divided into the sensory (afferent) division, which carries information to the CNS, and the motor (efferent) division, which carries information from the CNS.

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What are the two types of motor divisions?

The motor division is further divided into the somatic nervous system, which controls voluntary muscle movements, and the autonomic nervous system, which controls involuntary actions like heart rate and digestion.

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What are the main parts of the neuron?

The neuron is the basic functional unit of the nervous system. It consists of a cell body, dendrites, and an axon. Dendrites receive signals, the cell body processes them, and the axon transmits the signals.

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What is the function of myelin sheath?

The myelin sheath, a fatty covering, insulates the axon of a neuron, allowing for faster transmission of electrical signals.

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What is the CNS?

The CNS is the brain and spinal cord, the control center of the nervous system.

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What are the meninges?

The meninges are three layers of connective tissue that protect the brain and spinal cord, providing cushioning and support.

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What is cerebrospinal fluid?

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a watery cushion that surrounds the brain and spinal cord, providing protection and nutrients.

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What is a ventricle in the brain?

Ventricles are hollow spaces within the brain that are filled with cerebrospinal fluid. They are important for transporting nutrients and removing waste.

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Tidal Volume

The amount of air inhaled or exhaled in a normal breath.

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Minute Volume

The total volume of air breathed in one minute.

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Residual Volume

The amount of air remaining in the lungs after a maximum exhalation.

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Syrinx

A unique vocal organ found in birds that allows them to produce complex sounds.

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Air Sacs in Birds

Thin-walled structures that make up 80% of the avian respiratory system. They function as air reservoirs, aid in thermoregulation, and facilitate gas exchange.

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Testes

The male gonads responsible for producing sperm.

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Spermatic Cord

A structure that connects the testes to the abdominal cavity, containing blood vessels, nerves, and the vas deferens.

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Descent of Testes

The process where the testes move from the abdominal cavity to the scrotum before birth.

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Study Notes

Week 1 Cranial-Caudal Anatomy

  • Cranial-caudal refers to a position relative to the head and tail.
  • Rostral refers to the position closer to the nose.
  • Caudal refers to the position closer to the tail.
  • Cranial refers to the position closer to the head.

Anatomical Directions

  • Dorsal refers to the top/back of an animal.
  • Ventral refers to the bottom/belly of an animal.
  • Proximal refers to the position closer to the point of attachment.
  • Distal refers to the position farther from the point of attachment.
  • Medial refers to the position closer to the midline of the body.
  • Lateral refers to the position farther away from the midline of the body.

Anatomical Directions in Horses

  • Poll = top of the head
  • Mane = hair on the neck
  • Withers = the point where the neck joins the back
  • Croup = the hind part of the body
  • Dock = tail end
  • Tail = the tail
  • Back = spine area
  • Stifle = the joint between the thigh and lower leg
  • Gaskin = the area between the stifle and hock
  • Shoulder = the upper portion of the front limb
  • Point of shoulder = area where the shoulder blade attaches
  • Chest = chest area
  • Hocks = the joint at the back portion of the hind limb
  • Fetlock = area between the hock and hoof
  • Hoof = the hoof
  • Chestnut = hoof structure
  • Cannon bone = the large bone in lower leg
  • Forearm = the section between the knee and elbow
  • Knee = the similar joint as the hock located on front leg
  • Pastern = the section of hoof between the knee and hoof
  • Coronet = area surrounding the hoof
  • Cheek = cheek area
  • Nostril = nostril area
  • Muzzle = mouth area of the face
  • Chin = lower chin section
  • Throat latch = throat area
  • Ear = ear area

Week 2 Integumentary System

  • The integumentary system includes skin and its appendages (hair, glands, and specialized structures).
  • Skin functions include: preventing water loss, protecting against infection, regulating temperature, and sensory perception.
  • Skin is divided into epidermis and dermis.

Week 2 Skin Anatomy

  • Epidermis → avascular surface layer (5 layers), outer layer
  • Dermis → vascular, nerve-rich layer, contains blood vessels and nerves.
  • Skin diseases = squamous cell carcinoma, dermatitis, indicate awareness of skin health in treatment.
  • Hoof structure is critical for weight-bearing.
  • Specialized glands (e.g., uropygial gland in birds) maintain functions; e.g. waterproofing.
  • Conditions like laminitis (hoof) significantly impact animal well-being.

Week 2 Skin Layers and Appendages

  • Skin layers are epidermis and dermis.
  • Appendages include hair, claws, and glands (sebaceous and sweat glands).
  • Specialized structures such as horns and hooves have distinct functions.
  • Diseases such as mange and skin tumors exist.
  • Case studies provide illustrative examples of integumentary disorders.
  • Epidermis is avascular, while dermis has vessels and nerves.
  • Skin appendages have roles in protection, temperature regulation and sensory functions.

Week 3 Skeletal System

  • Bone functions: support, leverage, protection, storage of minerals, blood cell formation.
  • Axial skeleton: skull, vertebral column, and rib cage.
  • Appendicular skeleton: pectoral and pelvic limbs, bones associated with locomotion.

Week 3 Bone Types

  • Flat bones (relatively flat and short)
  • Irregular bones (do not fit in any category).
  • Cancellous bone (spongy bone): a honeycomb of spicules, filled with bone marrow, and lightweight.
  • Compact bone (dense and strong): the outside layer of all bones, and shaft of long bones
  • Long bones (diaphysis): tubular shaft, thick collar of compact bone, and marrow cavity .

Week 3 Further Bone Anatomy

  • Epiphyses - bone ends, compact bone outside and spongy bone inside, contain red bone marrow, site of hematopoiesis
  • Epiphyseal plate - between epiphysis and diaphysis, growth plate for bone growth.
  • Avian bones = lighter, reduction in bone number & fusion of bones to form plates for increased strength/simplicity in movement

Week 3 Additional Skeletal Anatomy

  • Common bone features = condyle, tubercle/tuberosity, head, neck, foramen, and fossa.
  • Diagrams or images (from OCR) may be useful for identifying these features.

Week 4 Joints

  • Joints are where two bones meet.
  • Joint types: fibrous (immovable), cartilaginous (slightly movable), synovial (freely movable).
  • Examples include sutures, symphysis, and those involving the humerus and radius bones.

Week 4 Further Joint Details

  • Common names for joints in animals.
  • Connectors of bones.
  • Types of joints and examples.

Week 5

  • Muscles—Skeletal, cardiac, smooth
  • Terminology: Muscle fibers, myo-, myso-, sarco
  • Skeletal muscle structure: elongated muscle cells.

Week 5 Muscular Anatomy

  • Skeletal muscles are categorized by functional groups: example: the muscles of facial expression.
  • Skeletal muscles—elongated-muscle cell containing sarcolemma, muscle fibers.
  • Types of muscle: skeletal (striated, voluntary), cardiac (striated, involuntary), and smooth (non-striated, involuntary).

Week 6 Special Senses

  • Sensory receptors specialized nerve endings that generate nerve pulses & interpreted as sensation.
  • Types of stimulus = mechanical (touch, hearing, balance), thermal (hot/cold), electromagnetic (vision), and chemical (smell).
  • Visceral sensations—miscellaneous category for sensations; e.g. hunger or thirst.
  • Touch: recognition of something physical touching the body; various levels of tactile sensation.
  • Temperature: receptors monitor temperature change, transmit info through nerve impulse to brain; hypo/hyperthermia = high/low body temp.
  • Pain: receptors = nociceptors; alert brain to potential harm; nociception = process of experiencing pain.
  • Proprioception = The sense of body position and movement. Special sense that is crucial to enable animals to stand up and move and interact with their environment.
  • Vision: sensory structure (3 layers = fibrous, vascular, and nervous), allowing animals to see.

Week 6 Additional Special Sense

  • Transduction → nerve impulses.
  • Transmission via spinal cord.
  • Modulation of impulses; interpretation by the brain – this is the pain experience.
  • Projection: pain perceived in the conscious part of the brain.
  • Special sensory function: vision.

Week 7 Cardiovascular System

  • The heart is covered in a fibrous sac (pericardium) → 2 membranes = fibrous sac, serous pericardium.
  • Divided into 2 main circuits: pulmonary and systemic.
  • Blood → heart in pulmonary circuit → lungs → oxygenation → heart → systemic circuit → body parts.
  • Different types of blood vessels (arteries, veins, and capillaries) convey blood throughout the circulatory system.

Week 7 Circulatory System Details

  • Heart position in thorax.
  • Heart size: base (cranial), apex (caudal).
  • Parts of the heart: Right atrium (RA) , Right ventricle (RV), Left atrium (LA), Left ventricle (LV)
  • Atrioventricular valves (AV valves): tricuspid & mitral.
  • Semilunar valves: pulmonary & aortic .
  • Conducting system → automaticity of heart function (SA and AV nodes, Bundle of His, and Purkinje fibers).

Week 9 Nervous System

  • The nervous system controls and communicates throughout the body.
  • Basic function—Sensory input, Integration, and Motor output.
  • CNS (central nervous system) is the brain and spinal cord, which receive, process, and direct information to the body.
  • PNS (peripheral nervous system) are nerves extending from the brain and cord; spinal nerves and cranial nerves.

Week 9 Further Nervous System Details

  • Sensory division = afferent, somatic sensory= impulses to skin/skeletal/joint; visceral sensory = impulses from internal organs
  • Motor= efferent; somatic motor = impulses to skeletal muscles, allows voluntary control; autonomic control = impulses to smooth and cardiac, involuntary control.
  • Neuron properties = excitability, extreme longevity, and amitotic (cannot make new ones).

Week 10 Respiratory System

  • Pulmonary ventilation (breathing): Inspiration (in) & Expiration (out). Mechanics include movement diaphragm & intercostal muscles and changes in thoracic cavity volume.
  • External Respiration: Exchange of gases in lungs between alveoli and blood.
  • Transport of Respiratory Gases: Oxygen to tissues & carbon dioxide back to the lungs by hemoglobin in the blood & cardiovascular system.
  • Internal Respiration: Exchange of gases between blood and cells.

Week 11 Reproductive System

  • Reproductive system = producing offspring
  • Requires a second animal → survival
  • Male reproductive system (testis for sperm production): delivering sperm in the scrotum → via the epididymis → vas deferens → urethra → Accessory glands (seminal vesicles, prostate gland, bulbourethral glands) → semen.

Week 11 Additional Reproductive Anatomy

  • Female reproductive organs (Ovaries for egg production) + process of fertilization and development.
  • Hormone regulation in the reproductive system, both male and female.

Week 12 Digestive System

  • Digestion = ingestion, propulsion, mechanical digestion, chemical digestion, absorption, and defecation (elimination of undigested material).
  • Adaptations to different diets for herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores.
  • Different stomach types: ruminant (4 chambers = rumen, reticulum, omasum, abomasum) & monogastric (simpler stomach structure).
  • Detailed anatomical structures of the digestive system (layers of the alimentary canal, oral cavity, teeth, tongue, digestive enzymes in accessory glands like pancreas, liver & gallbladder).

Week 13 Endocrine System

  • Endocrine system = composed of glands that produce hormones that regulate bodily processes.
  • Hormones = chemical messengers that influence target cells/tissues, to maintain homeostasis.
  • Types of hormones are amino acid-based (hydrophilic) and steroid-based (hydrophobic).
  • Feedback Mechanisms: negative (reduce stimulus) and positive (enhance).
  • Regulation mechanisms, stimulating or inhibiting hormone release - Types of hormone stimulus are humoral, neural, and hormonal.

Week 13 Additional Endocrine Details

  • Major endocrine glands & their functions (e.g., Hypothalamus, Pituitary, Thyroid, Parathyroid, Adrenals, Pancreas, Ovaries, and Testes, ).
  • Important common endocrine disorders, like Diabetes Mellitus, Hyperthyroidism, and Cushing's Syndrome.

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Animal Anatomy Notes PDF

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Test your knowledge on various aspects of animal anatomy and physiology. This quiz covers skin issues, ear structures, and the functions of different glands in animals. Perfect for students and enthusiasts alike!

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