Angola's Civil War: Cold War Context

• Angola's struggle for independence and subsequent civil war were significantly shaped by both internal dynamics and external interference during the 1960s and 1970s.

The Last Hot Battle of the Cold War

• Angola, the USSR, the USA, Cuba, and South Africa were significant players in the Angolan Civil War.
• The Cold War (1947–1991) was a geopolitical conflict between the USA and the USSR involving proxy wars, espionage, and ideological competition.
• A sphere of influence is a geopolitical area where a powerful nation exerts significant political, economic, or military control without direct territorial ownership.
• During the Cold War, Angola was a contested sphere of influence between the Eastern Bloc (USSR and Cuba) and the Western Bloc (USA and its allies).
• The USSR and Cuba supported the MPLA, while the USA and South Africa backed UNITA and FNLA.

Key Terms and Definitions

• Decolonization refers to the process by which African nations gained independence from European colonial rule.
• Decolonization often led to political instability and external interference.
• Proxy wars are conflicts in which external powers support opposing sides to advance their geopolitical interests without direct military engagement.
• Apartheid was South Africa's policy of racial segregation. South Africa's policy influenced its military and political interventions in Angola and Namibia.
• Containment Policy was the US Cold War strategy aimed at preventing the spread of communism.
• Containment policy influenced US support for UNITA in Angola.
• Angolan Civil War (1975–2002) involved a conflict between rival political and military groups in Angola, fueled by Cold War rivalries and regional conflicts. Parties involved in the Angolan Civil War included: MPLA, UNITA, FNLA, USSR, USA, Cuba, and South Africa.
• MPLA (Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola) was a socialist-leaning liberation movement that became Angola's ruling party after independence in 1975, supported by the USSR and Cuba. The key figures involved were Agostinho Neto, José Eduardo dos Santos, Fidel Castro and the USSR.
• UNITA (National Union for the Total Independence of Angola) was a US- and South African-backed anti-communist movement opposing the MPLA during the Angolan Civil War. Jonas Savimbi, South African Defence Force (SADF), the USA, and Zaire were important figures
• FNLA (National Front for the Liberation of Angola) was a nationalist movement opposing Portuguese rule. Afterwards, it was backed by the USA and Zaire, but weakened after the 1970s. Holden Roberto, the USA, Zaire, and Mobutu Sese Seko were major players.
• Cuban Military Intervention (1975–1991) involved Cuba sending thousands of troops to support the MPLA against UNITA and South African forces, led by Fidel Castro, Raúl Castro, and the Cuban Armed Forces.
• The South African Defence Force (SADF) was the apartheid government's military that intervened in Angola to combat the MPLA and protect its regional interests, with involvement by PW Botha, Magnus Malan, and SADF Officers.
• Operation Savannah (1975–1976) refers to a covert South African military intervention in Angola aimed at supporting UNITA and FNLA against the MPLA, involving SADF, UNITA, FNLA, and South Africa.
• SWAPO (South West African People's Organization) was a nationalist movement and political party that led the struggle for Namibia's independence from South African rule.
• SWAPO had ties to the MPLA in Angola and received military support from the USSR and Cuba
• SWAPO's armed wing, PLAN (People's Liberation Army of Namibia), operated from Angola, attacking South African forces.
• Sam Nujoma was the founding president of SWAPO and also the leader of the Namibian independence struggle
• SWAPO's role connected closely to Cold War dynamics in Southern Africa.
• The People's Liberation Army of Namibia (PLAN) was SWAPO’s military wing. PLAN carried out attacks from bases in Angola against South African Forces
• Battle of Cuito Cuanavale (1987-1988) occurred in Southern Angola and it was a key Cold War battle, seeing the SADF/UNITA fighting the MPLA/Cuban forces,
• The battle at Cuito Cuanavale is considered a turning point in the region
• The South African Defence Force (SADF), UNITA, MPLA, the Cuban Armed Forces, the USSR, and associated advisors were involved.
• FAPLA (People's Armed Forces for the Liberation of Angola) was the MPLA's military wing that the USSR and Cuba supported. The Angolan government, Soviet military advisors, and Cuban forces were involved.
• Zaire's Involvement (now the DRC) involved the country supporting the FNLA, then later UNITA, acting as a conduit for US and Western aid. Mobutu Sese Seko, FNLA, and the USA were involved.
• The USA provided financial and military support to UNITA and the FNLA to counter Soviet influence and in 1976, the Clark Amendment prohibited US for Angolan factions after Kissinger was no longer involved. Ronald Reagan, the Central Intelligence Agency, Jonas Savimbi and Holden Roberto were most involved.
• The USSR gave military and financial backing to the MPLA so they could establish a socialist state with Leonid Brezhnev, Soviet military advisors and Neto involved.
• The Brazzaville Accord (1988) was a diplomatic agreement for Cuban and South African Forces to withdraw from Angola to allow Namibian independence to prevail. Angola, Cuba, South Africa, the USA, and the UN, were involved.
• A direct result of the Cold War conflict in Southern Africa, influenced by the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale was Namibian Independence (1990) with the SWAPO, UN, South Africa, and Namibia involved.
• The Frontline states were a group of Southern African nations that were against Apartheid and South African aggression in the region. These states include Zambia, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and Angola.
• Post colonial independence in 1975, Angola was consumed by war, largely as a result of foreign intervention where the MPLA, FNLA and UNITA, were the main parties in the conflict.
• The USA and the USSR chose proxies to expand their influence where Cuba supported the communist superpower, the USSR and South Africa with China, intervened in favour of the USA.
• Angola became influenced by the Cold War as a result with the USA and USSR aiming to control the African continent with its resources
• The USA and USSR’s spheres of influence achieved through trade, conflict, and aid, where Angola became entangled in attempts to bring Angola under their respective spheres of influence.
• After World War II, the USSR began sponsoring governments that adopted communism to expand their influence, and capitalist countries did similar relying on the USA.
• Angola sought to control resources where the USA and USSR wanted to monopolise this trade however this led to the anxiety of a balance of power threat, leading to military aid.
• In 1949, America, Britain, and France formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and in response the USSR and communist countries in Eastern Europe signed the Warsaw Pact with Angola eventually signing the Warsaw pact and becoming part of the USSR's influence.

Colonialism and Independence

• Portuguese colonisation started in the mid-1500s, where they developed current day Angola with Luanda established in 1957 by Paulo Dias de Novais, however little was done to develop the region.
• Africans were known as assimilados who were forced to work long hours on plantations where they were not paid very much,
• Over time in 1951, Angola became an overseas providence of Portugal and divisions began to arise, leading to factionalism.
• The 1960s brought about a self determination and nationalistic sentiment which ended in the Angolan War of Independence, which saw warfare between 3 national movements - MPLA, FNLA and UNITA against Portuguese forces
• The MPLA was founded in 1956, consisting of intellectual elite with support in Luanda and controlling Cabinda’s oil wells. Agostinho Neto led the party in close connections with USSR and Cuba
• During the Civil War, the MPLA supported communism where Neto was succeeded by José dos Santos.
• Holden Roberto let the FNLA, formed on the support of the Bakongo people in the north, allying with the US ally, Mobutu Sese Seko, who provided safe bases from neighbouring Zaire.
• Jonas Savimbi lead the split off from the FNLA, UNITA in 1966 who received support from the country's largest ethnic group, Ovimbundu, who lived in the south and they were backed by the USA and South Africa
• The Angolan War of Independence was a result of Portugal not negotiating with nationalist leaders, and in 1974, the new Portuguese government declared independence for Angola.

Alvor Accord

• In 1975, the Alvor Accord was signed, recommending a transitional government comprising of MPLA, FNLA and UNITA but this agreement soon collapsed.
• Rivalries rose and UNITA set up a rival government, where this divided nation became a Cold War battle ground, with USSR, USA and China assisting

Outbreak of Civil War in 1975

• In 1974, both MPLA and FNLA asserted their right to form a new government, though the MPLA were stronger in terms of military and Roberto kept the FNLA confined to the North for his own motives.
• January 1975 saw the three leaders of the liberation movements introducing a transitional government with collaboration but it was short lived
• Between March and November 1975, Luanda’s control led to conflict and in July the MPLA kicked out all opposing groups and established themselves, leading to support from the USSR and Cuba. The United States then began to smuggle aid to the FNLA and UNITA.
• Henry Kissinger commented the Russian's presence as an act of African invasion who the united states could not let stand idly by
• Alongside the USA, the Apartheid government of South Africa was also worried and sent their own troops to assist the anti communist groups, occupying large segments and threatening Luanda.
• 1975 marked the second push of Luanda from South African and Zaire troops, with members from pro capitalist groups but due to aid from the USSR and Cuba, the MPLA maintained.
• By 1976, the South African, Zairian, FNLA and UNITA forces retreated and South Africa came to give support by 1981.
• Despite the continued civil war, Angolan became independent in 1975 with much foreign involvement but ultimately the MPLA and UNITA conflict made Angola’s war the longest and bloodiest of any Cold War.
• Key foreign Leaders of UNITA and MPLA were Savimbi and Roberto who had an interest in the USSR who had a shameful support from the Black Africans.
• Between 1975 and 1992, a civil war occurred, resulting in military presence from Russian and cuban members.

Enormous Costs of War

• South Africa and USA made sure that Savimbi acquired military aid whilst MPLA acquired help from Soviet and cuban figures that went on to form the People’s Armed Forces for the Liberation of Angola (FAPLA) with equipment from both Cuban and soviet figures.
• 1.1 million civilians died with the Angolan economy being destroyed despite educational growth and expansion, where funds for infrastructure was spent on military supplies.
• Foreign investors were reluctant which meant savimbi would raise money for his military by killing elephants in order to build 40,000 soldiers strong.
• Natural resources which could have propelled the region forward were spent on the war.
• There was support given to American. Soviet and Chinese groups which involved countries like South Africa and Cuba.
• International support saw a great dependence on sponsors that resulted in difficulty to establish a negotiable settlement.
• The USSR held an anti colonial sentiment during the 19th and 20th centuries where its motives to end capitalism and colonialism in the world. The cuban forces with military and monetary means played a pivotal role.
• Due to their earlier failure in the congo, the USSR began aiding the MPLA with anti marxist policies to counter actions from the United States.
• The USSR set out aims to install communist governments in Angola whilst combatting their rival, China as well as protect itself from American and South African intervention.
• From 1974 to 1975, USSR aid was distributed to the MPLA which saw the development of power and control.
• America was looking to control Angola to stop Soviet backed government, with the FNLA and Unita supported by Kennedy. However it became increasingly clear that the MPLA had too strong a hold.
• Due to the concerns of Secretary Henry Kissinger, of the Russian influence America decided to intervene but from the sidelines.
• The USA was allied with the FNLA with Mobutu Sese Seko, who encouraged ford to support troops but keep it a secret with Ronald Regan ensuring the Clark Amendment was repeated.
• Fidel Castrol sought to bring marxism by military presence where China and Zaire had some influence.
• However, China failed in soviet backed MPLA came to power that only established relations in the 1980’s

South Africa

• Due to concern of the USSR power, South Africa wanted to end socialist forces protecting minority rule.
• Other than Angola, the group was concerned about the position with Namibia, Zimbabwe and minority rule which meant that they aimed to defeat MPLA. There was concern that groups from The South West Africa People’s Organisation (SWAPO) would threaten South West Africa, but ultimately they sought the alliance of USA.

Negatives of this

• There were some positives to the violence, though the negatives included mass pressure and enourmoud violence suffered by those caught in the unrest.
• Most of those involved in violence were those who ran the country and had the skills to allow an increase in economy as they departed.
• A refugee crises began which forced entire groups to exile over different lands where economic stability was low which meant there was dependence on international aid.
• Some estimated up to 6000 child refugees, as well as undetonated landmines with the most recent calculations of 240 square Kilometres in 2009, as well as the need for land to farm resulted in many deaths.
• The departure of Portugal also affected the areas of Rhodesia and Mozambique, whilst South African apartheid blacks were given hope, it led to instability.

Battle of Cuito Cuanavale (1987 - 1988)

• The Battle of Cuito Cuanavale is highly viewed as a turning point within the war as well as in Namibia in 1986
• The soviet union gave around 1 million to the Angolan region and Cuban's were set to protect Chevron fuel platforms, however this meant violence to a US ally and saw escalation due to the Cold War.
• A bid for peace in South Africa was proposed by America from the USSR of foreign troop removal, whilst the South African government tried its best to broker peace with the groups concerned.

Background content of Operação Saludando Octubre

• 1987 showed that they were in control of South East Angola, which saw South African forces move across borders to assist which resulted in USSR officers attacking Angolan soldiers. The South African forces and Angolan forces engaged in significant conflict, resulting in a big blow for The Angolan army and a quick retreat to Cuito Cuanavale.
• From January 1988, Angola’s army were trapped, by SADF as well as UNITA as Fidel Castro sent his Cuban army to assist. Nearly 40,000 soldiers were there. The SADF shelled Cuito Cuanavale without success and further attempt soon led to failure and they retreated.
• It become increasingly clear a stand off was eminent and neither group would succumb or suffer extreme death. This failure meant that it was time to access the might and strength, and look for a plan.
• In 1988, Namibia’s independence saw a peace deal in Angola, this New York Accord showed that the South African forces had a plan to leave the area.
• Following this Angola viewed that the groups, which had previously been against were victorious despite view of liberation movements.
• It was viewed that aftermath that would promote conversation to set South Africa was on to a path of Democracy.

What Was the Outcome?

• By 1989, competing for spheres of influence was no longer needed due to USSR and the USA ending the Cold War in what resulted in a combination of negotiating the Angolan Civil War in 1975;2002.
• Brazzaville Protocol occurred in 1988 and the Bicesse Accords occurred in 1991. In 1994, the lusaka Protical occurred and in 2002 there was a Luena Memorandum to establish long term peace agreement and Angola's final civil war ended after 27 years due to diplomatic negotiations and pressure.
• It was noted from the death of Savimbi, in 1992. There became a multiparty accord and a rejection of Marxism and leninism in April of 1991.
• By 1993 UNITA was sanctioned after rejection of fraud and resumed guerrilla warfare led to a transitional government and it was not until 1993. Finally a cease fire agreement set the tone for Angola and it marked its independence.