Cold War in Angola: Spheres of Influence

• Internal and external factors significantly impacted Africa during the 1960s and 1970s

Cold War in Angola

• The Angolan Civil War was a key Cold War battle involving Angola, USSR, USA, Cuba, and South Africa
• The Cold War, between 1947 and 1991, was a geopolitical conflict between the USA and USSR
• It involved proxy wars, espionage, and ideological competition, rather than direct military confrontation

Spheres of Influence

• A sphere of influence is a geopolitical area where a powerful nation exerts significant political, economic, or military control without owning the territory
• Angola was a contested sphere of influence during the Cold War:
  • The USSR and Cuba supported the MPLA
  • The USA and South Africa backed UNITA and FNLA

Key Terms & Entities

• Decolonisation is the process where African nations gained independence from European colonial rule
• This often led to political instability and external interference
• Proxy wars involved external powers supporting opposing sides to advance geopolitical interests without direct military engagement
• Apartheid is South Africa’s policy of racial segregation
• This significantly influenced military and political interventions in Angola and Namibia
• The Containment Policy was the US Cold War strategy to prevent the spread of communism
• This influenced US support for UNITA in Angola

Angolan Civil War and Key Players

• The Angolan Civil War (1975–2002) was a conflict between rival political and military groups, fueled by Cold War rivalries
• Key players in the Angolan Civil War included: MPLA, UNITA, FNLA, USSR, USA, Cuba, and South Africa
• MPLA (Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola) was a socialist-leaning liberation movement and became Angola's ruling party after 1975
• It was supported by the USSR and Cuba
• Key figures in the MPLA were Agostinho Neto, José Eduardo dos Santos, Fidel Castro, and USSR
• UNITA (National Union for the Total Independence of Angola) was a US- and South African-backed anti-communist movement against the MPLA
• Key figures in UNITA were Jonas Savimbi, South African Defence Force (SADF), USA, and Zaire
• FNLA (National Front for the Liberation of Angola) opposed Portuguese rule, was later backed by the USA and Zaire, but weakened after the 1970s
• Its key figures were Holden Roberto, USA, Zaire, and Mobutu Sese Seko
• During the Cuban Military Intervention (1975–1991), Cuba sent troops to support the MPLA against UNITA and South African forces
• Key figures involved were Fidel Castro, Raúl Castro, and Cuban Armed Forces
• The South African Defence Force (SADF) intervened in Angola to combat the MPLA and protect its regional interests
• Key figures included PW Botha, Magnus Malan, and SADF officers

Operation Savannah

• Operation Savannah (1975–1976) was a covert South African military intervention in Angola to support UNITA and FNLA against the MPLA
• Key entities involved were SADF, UNITA, FNLA, and South Africa
• SWAPO (South West African People's Organization) was a nationalist movement that fought for Namibia's independence from South Africa
• It was closely linked to Cold War dynamics in southern Africa
• Its founding president, Sam Nujoma, led armed resistance against South Africa and later became Namibia’s first president
• PLAN (People's Liberation Army of Namibia) was the military wing of SWAPO, carrying out guerrilla attacks against South African forces from bases in Angola
• The Battle of Cuito Cuanavale (1987–1988) was a key Cold War battle in southern Angola between the SADF/UNITA and the MPLA/Cuban forces

Other Entities

• FAPLA (People’s Armed Forces for the Liberation of Angola) supported the MPLA. Angola Gov, Soviet & Cuban advisors involved
• Zaire supported FNLA and UNITA, acting as a conduit for US and Western aid
• US involvement provided financial and military support to UNITA and FNLA to counter Soviet influence
• Key US figures were Ronald Reagan, CIA, Jonas Savimbi, and Holden Roberto
• Henry Kissinger, as U.S. Secretary of State (1973–1977), shaped U.S. Cold War policy in Africa and supported anti-communist forces
• The Clark Amendment in 1976 prohibited further U.S. aid to Angolan factions, diminishing Kissinger's influence
• The USSR provided military and financial aid to the MPLA to establish a socialist state
• Key figures were Leonid Brezhnev, Soviet military advisors, and Neto
• The Brazzaville Accord (1988) was a diplomatic agreement for the withdrawal of Cuban and South African forces from Angola
• The agreement paved the way for Namibian independence, with players including Angola, Cuba, South Africa, USA, and the UN
• Namibian Independence (1990) resulted from Cold War conflicts in Southern Africa
• Key stakeholders were SWAPO, UN, South Africa, and Namibia
• Frontline States were Southern African nations opposing apartheid and South African aggression, such as Zambia, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and Angola

Path to Civil War

• After 13 years of independence war, Angola plunged into civil war after gaining independence from Portugal
• Main parties involved: MPLA, FNLA, and UNITA, largely due to foreign powers' intervention
• Exploitation of Angolan situation by the USA and the USSR furthered Cold War rivalry
• Countries used proxies to fight for greater influence
• Cuba backed the Soviet-leaning MPLA, while South Africa and China backed Western-leaning factions

Cold War in Africa

• Granting independence opened Africa to the USA and the USSR
• The superpowers never fought directly but used the "Third World" to fight indirectly
• USA and USSR involved themselves in African liberation struggles to control resources, territory, and people to expand their spheres of influence
• Weak, newly independent African countries susceptible to external involvement
• During Cold War, spheres of influence indicated areas with cultural, economic, political or military control by the USA or USSR
• Countries within "sphere of influence" of superpower were an extension of that superpower
• Spheres of influence derived from trade, conflict, and aid, entangling Angola in superpower efforts

Trade & Conflict

• At the end of World War II, the USSR sponsored communist/socialist governments, bringing them under its influence
• Capitalist countries relying on the USA for post-war aid fell under U.S. influence
• USA and USSR controlled trade within their spheres to prevent opponents from becoming more powerful
• Both sought to control newly independent Angola and its resources to monopolise and weaken the other side
• With the threat of atomic and nuclear war, maintaining a "balance of power" became crucial
• An expanded sphere can undermine another’s power
• Both superpowers needed control over Angola to gain an advantage

NATO and Warsaw Pact

• April 4, 1949: America, Britain, France founded NATO
• Members could request military/technological aid against Soviet Union attacks
• Response in 1955: the USSR and Eastern European communist countries formed the Warsaw Pact, pledged to defend members under attack
• NATO and the Warsaw Pact represented USA and USSR spheres of influence

Angola After Independence

• Angola signed the Warsaw Pact post-independence
• This meant it was effectively under the USSR’s sphere of influence
• America’s anxiety over this was a major reason why Angola was embroiled in the Cold War

Early Colonial Rule

• By the mid-1500s, Portugal established a presence on Angola's West African coast
• In 1577, Paulo Dias de Novais founded Luanda, where 100 families and 400 Portuguese soldiers settled
• For the next 400 years, Portugal exerted little developmental effort in Angola
• Land was taken from Angolan peasant farmers and given to white farmers
• Resultantly, the majority of African people were forced to work long hours on cotton or coffee plantations, and earned very little
• By 1951, Angola became an overseas Portuguese province. Africans were called assimilados and adopted the Portuguese language and culture
• A hybrid society emerged, including mestiços in coastal towns, Creole families, Portuguese-speaking blacks on the coast, and peasants speaking indigenous languages

Nationalist Movements

• By the 1960s, Angola's demands for self-determination emerged as part of a continent-wide fever of nationalism
• This was ignored by the Portuguese regime led by Antonio Salazar
• Led to the Angolan War of Independence between nationalist movements (MPLA, FNLA and UNITA) and the Portuguese
• The three movements waged guerrilla warfare against the armed forces of the Portuguese

Popular Movement & Other Forces

• The MPLA was founded in 1956 by educated black radicals, primarily represented the Ambundu people
• MPLA controlled Cabinda’s oil wells
• Led by Agostinho Neto, Angola's first president, who established connections with USSR/Cuba
• MPLA fought for Angolan independence with/against FNLA and UNITA
• During the civil war MPLA looked towards the East
• In 1977 MPLA refashioned itself as a Marxist-Leninist party, adding Party of Labor to its name, and promoting Socialism
• FNLA was led by Holden Roberto, was primarily based in norther areas and represented the Bakongo people
• FNLA built strong ties with US ally Mobutu Sese Seko

The Angolan War of Independence

• Portugal's refusal to negotiate with nationalist leaders sparked the Angolan War of Independence
• Portuguese Armed Forces retaliated against rebel guerrilla forces
• As a result, Portuguese authorities changed policies to include more investment and equality
• The coup and Carnation Revolution in Portugal in 1974 ended the conflict, intending to grant all Angola (and other colonies) independence
• January 15, 1975: Alvor Accord was signed between Portuguese government and main liberation factions
• This created a transitional government of the MPLA, FNLA and UNITA
• Agostinho Neto President, tasked with leading the country to November 11, 1975 independance

Continued Conflict

• The Alvor Agreement formed three-way power-sharing government, trust quickly broke down
• UNITA demanded the right to self-govern independent Angola
• FNLA and UNITA set up a rival government
• The country now descended into civil war as each vied for power
• The Angolan War of Independence of 1961-1974 led to it becoming a Cold War site, MPLA/USSR and FNLA/US
• The MPLA had a stronghold in Luanda, the country's capital
• By July 1975, the MPLA drove out UNITA and FNLA groups from Luanda
• The USA supported the FNLA with leader Holden Roberto at $10,000 a year
• In Jan. 1975 The CIA provided $300,000 in covert aid to the FNLA
• President Ford and Mobutu Sese Seko also allowed the USA to fly in supplies
• South African forces supported UNITA/FNLA
• In 1976, however, the Clark Amendment barred aid, including the further sale of weapons to UNITA
• Ronald Reagan repealed the Clark Amendment, allowing more military support
• January 1986: Reagan invited Savimbi to the White House, two months later the stinger missiles

Aid

• Cubans supported the MPLA to bring Marxism to Angola
• In 1963, MPLA soldiers were receiving guerrilla warefare from the Cubans, by mid-1980s the number was 20,000 then moved to 55,000
• China from the 1960s China supported three liberation movements, in 1963 Holden met CHinese minister
• USA wanted to balance Soviets back communist
• The was support from Mobutu which facilitated involvement in Zaire

SA Response

• Government was anxious as left win MPLA governement and afraid that ANC would provide a safe heaven and military support to south africans
• SWAPO is protected by communist and they administer from 1919
• SA representatives with Jonas and Robert in exchange for support from SA
• This prolongded civil war in Angola

Destabilizing

• Civil wars forces massive pressure on the people caught in violence. The whites leave the country
• The lack of them made economy in stand still.
• 4 million people forced to free homeland with the children as victims
• 27 years of civil war 10240 kilometers unsafe

Fighting Ends

• 1989, Angola was longer had super power to influence. Key agreements an events led to end
• Savimbi death and the US allowed in Angola and made in permanent ceasefire

Brazzaville

• Cuba troop withdrawl, signed angola, cuba and south aftica to forcus on military prevention
• Bicese Accords is signed in 1992 but rejected because one of partied are leading
• Lusaka protocol in 1994 with Ceasefire and disatiment of the united nations
• 1992 Dos and Savimibi in potrtugal to form pacea greements ti bring end to 17 years

TImelines

• FNLA and MPLA campaign guerilla 1961
• Portugal, and angonal attend official from independent