Ancient vs. Modern Democracy

• In 1992, the world marked 2500 years of democracy, though modern democracy differs greatly from that of ancient Athens.
• The term "democracy" originates from the Greek words "demos" (people) and "kratos" (power or rule), signifying "rule by the people."
• Democracy entails citizens having the power to govern, directly through participation or indirectly through elected representatives.

Ancient vs. Modern Democracy

• In ancient Athens, only about 25% of the population, excluding slaves, women, and foreigners (metics), were considered citizens.
• Despite the limited citizenry, Athenian democracy involved around 40,000 individuals participating directly in political life through assemblies meeting up to 300 days per year.
• Athenian democracy faced challenges from aristocrats, army generals, and manipulative leaders (demagogues) who disparaged the poor.
• Citizens in Athens were chosen by lottery to serve in administrative and judicial roles.

Modern Democracy Origins

• Modern democracy began in Britain with the Industrial Revolution and in France and America with late 1700s political revolutions.
• In Britain, after the English Civil War (1640–1649), Parliament gained power, but voting rights were initially limited to property owners, with elites maintaining control.
• The Reform Act of 1832 expanded voting rights to the upper middle class, and later reforms extended these rights to working-class men, with women gaining suffrage in 1929 and universal adult suffrage in 1948.
• In France, the French Revolution of 1789 introduced popular sovereignty and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, advocating for liberty, equality, and fraternity.
• While the 1791 Constitution initially granted most men voting rights, restrictions based on property were later added, and universal adult suffrage was only achieved in 1946.
• The American Declaration of Independence (1776) established a republican government with separation of powers, but initially, only white men could vote, with voting rights extended to women, Black people, and indigenous people in the 1950s.

Democratic Ideas and Thinkers

• The Reformation (1500s) fostered religious tolerance and questioned political authority, indirectly promoting democratic ideals.
• The Levellers in 17th century England advocated for popular sovereignty and civil liberties, but excluded women, servants, and criminals from universal male suffrage.
• John Locke's "Second Treatise on Government" (1681) posited that humans possess natural rights (life, liberty, property) and can replace a government that fails to protect these rights.
• The American Declaration of Independence, influenced by Locke, declared rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness as natural and inalienable but excluded slaves and women.
• The French Declaration of Rights of Man (1789), influenced by Rousseau, emphasized citizenship and community, with Rousseau favoring direct democracy.

Explaining Democracy and Democratization

• Industrial capitalism played a role in the rise of democracy by creating new middle and working classes that challenged old elites and demanded political rights.
• Wars increased the state's importance, leading people to seek more control and participation, aided by increased literacy, transport, and communication.
• Capitalist industrialization fostered democracy in the West, while other regions followed varied paths, such as fascism in Japan and Germany or communism in Russia and China.
• Barrington Moore explained Democracy emerged due to shifts in class relations, agricultural surplus invested in industry, commercial agriculture leads to More freedom for peasants, balance between aristocracy and state and Strong bourgeoisie breaking with the past.
• Liberal-democracy, a Western form, emphasizes individual rights, limited government, and free elections, but democracy has taken diverse forms globally.
• The 20th century saw major growth and inclusiveness in democracy, including women's suffrage and the end of apartheid, but also experienced failures and challenges after the end of communism.

Contemporary Challenges to Democracy

• Main challenges include development, diversity, gender, and globalization.

Development

• There is no clear consensus if democracy helps or blocks development
• India’s slow development is sometimes blamed on democracy
• East Asia’s fast development is often linked to lack of democracy.
• Research shows mixed results — many other factors like history, economy, and society need to be considered.
• Development = expanding human capabilities and giving people real choices in life including economic help and social support.

Diversity

• Democratic theory focused on individual equality but ignored cultural diversity.
• Groups (not just individuals) should also have rights to protect their culture.
• The State must move beyond just tolerance to multiculturalism — it should respect and support different cultures.

Gender

• Women got voting rights very late even in Western democracies such as in Switzerland in 1971.
• Rights are often missing for women in marginalized groups
• Basic rights like voting, movement, reproductive rights are often denied.
• Provide better participation opportunities for women.
• To ensure participation, use quotas/reservations.
• Need to ensure that women, minorities, and excluded groups are actually present in political spaces.

Globalization

• Globalization consists of growing connections and exchanges between countries around the world, in money, technology, information, culture, and people.
• Globalization creates international organizations that influence countries’ decisions but are not democratically controlled.
• Globalization facilitates global civil society and cosmopolitan democracy, fostering cooperation and shared power beyond national borders.