Ancient Views on Brain and Soul
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Questions and Answers

What was the primary belief regarding the brain in ancient Egyptian culture?

  • The brain was considered the seat of emotions.
  • The brain was preserved for the afterlife.
  • The brain was viewed as unimportant and not preserved. (correct)
  • The brain was believed to contain the soul.

According to Aristotle, where was the soul thought to reside?

  • In the lungs, responsible for life force.
  • In the heart, being the first developed organ. (correct)
  • In the brain, as the center of thought.
  • In the liver, associated with emotion.

What did Hippocrates and Galen believe about the function of the brain?

  • The brain was solely responsible for emotions.
  • Brain injuries did not affect bodily functions.
  • The brain enables reasoning and sensory perceptions. (correct)
  • Pain and sorrow originated in the heart, not the brain.

Which of the following components did Plato identify as part of the mind/soul?

<p>Logos. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did ancient thinkers explain the relationship between brain injuries and behavior?

<p>Injuries to one side of the brain caused opposite side convulsions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which brain region is primarily responsible for coordinating motor activity, posture, and equilibrium?

<p>Cerebellum (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of glial cells in the synapse?

<p>To recycle neurotransmitters (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What structure connects the two cerebral hemispheres?

<p>Corpus callosum (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which layer of the cortex integrates the balance of excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials?

<p>Axon hillock (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is characterized by the inability to appropriately process signals in the frontal lobe?

<p>Antisocial personality disorder (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which lobe is primarily associated with visual processing in the brain?

<p>Occipital lobe (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) like Prozac influence neurotransmission?

<p>They inhibit serotonin reuptake (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What structural feature of the cerebral cortex is characterized by gyri and sulci?

<p>Increased surface area for higher processing (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which population of cells within the cortex is mainly associated with somatic sensations?

<p>Sensory neurons (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following characteristics is NOT associated with the insular cortex?

<p>Motor control coordination (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was Brocca's hypothesis regarding brain size and intelligence?

<p>Brain size predicted a person's intelligence. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements best describes the correlation between IQ and cortical thickness?

<p>Few regions show a correlation across different age ranges. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What relationship is observed between the size of the hippocampus and taxi drivers?

<p>Taxi drivers have a larger hippocampus correlated with their years of experience. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the neural representation of specific body parts indicate about sensory experiences?

<p>Body parts used in activities show increased neural representation. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was a key finding regarding racial and gender superiority theories based on brain size?

<p>Brain size differences have been debunked by examining eminent individuals' brain sizes. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is the relationship between brain size and specific behaviors significant?

<p>Specific brain regions may uniquely influence certain behaviors. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the study of cortical thickness and intelligence, what was the observed trend in children?

<p>Late thickening of the pre-frontal cortex correlates with higher intelligence. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the research suggest about the effect of touch screen use on neural representation?

<p>Neural representation of the thumb is larger in individuals using touch screens. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of oligodendrocytes in the brain?

<p>To aid nerve conduction by covering axons with myelin (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which lobe of the cerebrum is primarily responsible for language and memory?

<p>Temporal lobe (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes gray matter from white matter in the brain?

<p>Gray matter consists of cell bodies and dendrites while white matter consists of axon tracts. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are gyri and sulci in relation to the brain's structure?

<p>Gyri are the hills, whereas sulci are the valleys or grooves on the brain's surface. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which anatomical term is synonymous with the superior-inferior axis?

<p>Dorsal-ventral axis (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Where is the primary visual area located in the brain?

<p>In the calcarine sulcus (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the composition of the central nervous system (CNS)?

<p>Includes the brain and spinal cord only (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of astrocytes in the brain?

<p>To maintain an appropriate chemical environment (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the central sulcus in brain anatomy?

<p>It defines the boundary between the frontal lobe and parietal lobe. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which component of the nervous system controls internal organs such as muscles and the heart?

<p>Parasympathetic nervous system (B), Sympathetic nervous system (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the hypothalamus in the brain?

<p>Maintaining homeostasis (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which structure is primarily responsible for the detection of fearful stimuli?

<p>Amygdala (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Damage to the basal ganglia can result in which of the following conditions?

<p>Excessive movement (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the ventricles in the brain?

<p>They serve as landmarks for brain orientation. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which arteries are primarily responsible for supplying blood to the brain?

<p>Internal carotid and basilar (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the current understanding of savant syndrome suggest it arises?

<p>From specific localized brain damage. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the concept of allometry address in relation to brain size?

<p>The relationship between brain size and body size. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following structures is associated with the regulation of vital functions?

<p>Medulla (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do the basal ganglia have in relation to motor activity?

<p>They facilitate voluntary movement. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which hypothesis is supported by the observation of foraging behaviors in different monkey species?

<p>Dietary needs influence brain complexity. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of the thalamus in brain function?

<p>Processing sensory information (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the size of the human brain compare to body size evolutionarily?

<p>It has increased disproportionately compared to body size. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What function does the cerebellum serve in the brain?

<p>Motor coordination (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What primarily distinguishes horseshoe bats from other species according to the foraging hypothesis?

<p>Their complex foraging behavior. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did Galvanni's early experiments suggest about nerve function?

<p>They indicated that fluids or animal spirits moved along nerves. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the theory of dualism, what is the relationship between the mind and brain?

<p>The mind and brain are separate entities that communicate. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was a significant flaw in Gall's phrenology?

<p>It assumed the softness of the brain could not affect skull shape. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the central argument of the concept of equipotentiality?

<p>The brain functions as a cohesive unit rather than localized regions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did Broca discover through his research on language?

<p>A specific region in the brain affects speech capability. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did Thomas Willis contribute to the understanding of brain anatomy?

<p>He named and identified specific brain structures and their functions. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What fundamental idea did Cajal contribute to neuroscience?

<p>Neurons are distinct entities that each have specific functions. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was a problem identified with the concept of dualism?

<p>The pineal gland was thought to disconnect mind and brain functions. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which method allows for the assessment of individual neuron action potentials?

<p>Single Neuron Recording (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What information does fMRI provide about brain function?

<p>It detects changes in blood flow related to neural activity. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did the findings of Flourens and Lashley suggest about brain lesions?

<p>The absolute size of the lesion affects behavioral outcomes. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was a significant limitation of the theory of phrenology?

<p>It lacked empirical evidence regarding brain structure-function correlations. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of neuroscience did EEG and MEG focus on studying?

<p>Magnetic fields generated by neural processes. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did the concept of tetrodotoxin relate to nerve signaling?

<p>It prevents action potentials from being transmitted. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements best describes the principle of proper mass?

<p>The size of brain regions is related to the complexity of tasks they perform. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one key function of the hippocampus as indicated in the content?

<p>Memory specialization. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Echolocating bats primarily excel in detecting objects by using which of the following?

<p>Sonar from sound wave reflections. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which animal is indicated to have a specialized ability for storing and retrieving food?

<p>Clark's nutcracker. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The relative size of the superior colliculus and inferior colliculus in an animal can be an indication of what?

<p>The importance of visual and auditory information in its environment. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the social intelligence theory suggest about the evolution of the neocortex?

<p>It developed to manage complex social interactions. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor influences the size of the hypertriatum ventral pars caudale (HVC) in warblers?

<p>The number of songs each species produces. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of brain size, which of the following statements regarding the neocortex is most accurate?

<p>Neocortex size positively correlates with social group complexity. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the differing facial recognition regions in animals raised in larger groups?

<p>They show increased size of face regions for individual recognition. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Broca's area is primarily responsible for which function?

<p>Production of speech. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about microcephaly is true?

<p>It is often linked to damage in the microcephalin-1 gene. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How is the principle of overrepresentation exemplified in sensory and motor maps in the human body?

<p>Body parts that are more sensitive or used for fine movements have larger representations. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which brain region is correlated with the evolution of advanced language in humans?

<p>Broca’s area. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements best captures the changes in the microcephalin-1 gene?

<p>Higher changes indicate damage associated with microcephaly. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of the sodium-potassium pump in neurons?

<p>To create a negative charge inside the neuron by pumping sodium out (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does hyperpolarization have on a neuron's ability to fire action potentials?

<p>It makes the neuron less likely to fire an action potential (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which voltage-gated ion channels open first during the depolarization phase of an action potential?

<p>Na+ channels (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary cause of the generation of an action potential?

<p>The influx of sodium ions (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

At what membrane potential does equilibrium for potassium ions typically occur?

<p>-65 mV (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of neuronal signaling, what does the term 'all or nothing principle' refer to?

<p>An action potential is either generated in full or not at all (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which process best describes how neurotransmitter molecules are released into the synapse?

<p>Exocytosis from vesicles (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason that action potentials travel faster along myelinated axons compared to unmyelinated axons?

<p>Myelin insulates the axon, reducing ion leakage (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During synaptic transmission, which ion is primarily responsible for triggering the release of neurotransmitters?

<p>Ca++ (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the action of neurotransmitters influence the post-synaptic neuron?

<p>They open ion channels that alter the electrical potential temporarily (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What typically occurs to a neuron’s membrane potential during an excitatory post-synaptic potential (EPSP)?

<p>The membrane potential becomes more positive, moving towards threshold (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the nodes of Ranvier in neuronal conduction?

<p>They regenerate action potentials along myelinated axons (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does the influx of sodium ions have on the neuron's membrane potential?

<p>It causes depolarization of the membrane (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Ancient Egyptian Understanding of Brain Function

Ancient Egyptians observed that injuries to the brain or head could result in changes in behavior on the opposite side of the body.

Egyptian Views on the Brain and Afterlife

The ancient Egyptians believed the brain was not crucial for the afterlife and did not preserve it during mummification.

Plato's Theory of the Tripartite Soul

Plato proposed the mind or soul has three parts: logos (reason), thymos (emotion), and eros (desire).

Aristotle's View of the Soul's Location

Aristotle believed the soul resided in the heart, arguing its early development and the fatal consequences of heart damage.

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Hippocrates and Galen's Materialist Perspective

Hippocrates and Galen supported materialism, linking the brain to various functions like pain, grief, thinking, understanding, and perception.

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Neurotransmitter Termination

The process where neurotransmitters (NT) are removed from the synapse after their action.

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Glutamate Recycling

This removes glutamate from the synapse by glial cells for re-use.

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Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs)

A class of drugs that block the reuptake of serotonin, increasing its availability in the synapse.

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Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential (EPSP)

A type of potential that makes a neuron more likely to fire an action potential.

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Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential (IPSP)

A type of potential that makes a neuron less likely to fire an action potential.

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Summation of Postsynaptic Potentials

Integration of both excitatory and inhibitory signals by neurons.

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Axon Hillock

The region of a neuron where the cell body meets the axon, where action potentials are generated.

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Surface Features of the Brain

Visible features of the brain such as the cerebral hemispheres, cerebellum, and brainstem.

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Cerebral Cortex

The outermost layer of the brain, responsible for higher cognitive functions.

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Gyri

Folds or bumps on the surface of the brain.

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Naturalistic view of disease

The idea that diseases have a natural cause, not divine punishment.

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Brain injury and behavior

Behavioral changes observed in individuals with brain injuries.

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Ventricular theory

The theory that fluids in ventricles were responsible for transmitting messages through nerves.

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Four humors theory

An ancient theory suggesting four bodily fluids, or humors, influence personality and health.

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Mind-body dualism

The idea that the mind and brain are separate but connected, working together.

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Pineal gland

A small gland in the brain, once thought to be the seat of the soul, now known to influence sleep.

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Localization of function

The idea that different brain regions have specialized functions.

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Equipotentiality

A theory that the brain works as a whole, rejecting the idea of specialized regions.

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Broca's area

A region in the brain involved in language production, named after the scientist who studied it.

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Wernicke's area

A region in the brain involved in language comprehension, named after the scientist who studied it.

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Neuron doctrine

The theory that neurons are distinct entities, not interconnected tubes, as previously believed.

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Single-neuron recording

A technique that records the electrical activity of individual neurons, providing information about their responses to specific stimuli.

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Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

A non-invasive technique that uses magnetic pulses to stimulate or inhibit activity in specific brain regions.

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Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

A technique that measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow, which reflect neural activity.

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Luigi Galvani

A scientist who demonstrated the role of electricity in nerve function by observing the twitching of a frog leg when stimulated.

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Neurons

Specialized cells in the brain responsible for generating electrical signals. These cells are responsible for transmitting information throughout the nervous system.

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Glial cells

Non-signalling cells supporting neurons in the brain.

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Central Nervous System (CNS)

Includes the brain and spinal cord.

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Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Includes all the neurons and axons outside of the central nervous system.

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Gray matter

Composed of cell bodies and dendrites, appearing grayish in color.

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White matter

Composed of axon tracts, appearing whitish due to the myelin sheath.

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Occipital lobe

Responsible for processing visual information, located at the back of the brain.

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Parietal lobe

Responsible for processing sensory information and motor control, located at the top of the brain.

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Frontal lobe

Responsible for higher cognitive functions like language, planning and thinking, located at the front of the brain.

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What are neurons?

Neurons are specialized cells that transmit electrical signals throughout the nervous system. They have three main parts: the cell body, dendrites, and axon.

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What do dendrites do?

Dendrites receive signals from other neurons. They act like antennas, picking up information.

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What does the axon do?

The axon is the long, thin extension that transmits signals away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands. It acts like a cable carrying the message.

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How do neurons convey electrical signals?

The movement of charged ions across the neuronal membrane is the basis of electrical signals in neurons. These ions are like tiny charged particles that move across the membrane, creating electrical signals.

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How are ions transported across the neuronal membrane?

Ions move across the neuronal membrane through ion pumps and channels, which control the movement of ions in and out of the neuron.

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What is the concentration gradient?

The concentration gradient is the difference in concentration of ions between the inside and outside of the neuron. Ions tend to move from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration.

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What is the electrical current?

The electrical current is the flow of charged particles, such as ions, along a potential difference. Ions move towards areas with opposite charges.

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What is resting potential?

The resting potential of a neuron is the stable negative charge within the neuron when it is not actively transmitting a signal. It's like the neuron being at rest.

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What does the sodium-potassium pump do?

This pump moves sodium ions (Na+) out of the neuron and potassium ions (K+) into the neuron, maintaining the concentration gradients and contributing to the negative resting potential. It's like a pump working tirelessly to keep the balance.

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What is the threshold?

The threshold is the minimum level of depolarization required to trigger an action potential. It's the critical point where the neuron decides to fire or not.

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What is an action potential?

An action potential (AP) is a rapid, brief electrical signal transmitted along the axon of a neuron. It's the neuron's way of sending a message.

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What are voltage-gated channels?

Voltage-gated channels are specialized protein channels in the neuronal membrane that open or close in response to changes in the electrical potential across the membrane. They control ion flow and generate action potentials.

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What is myelin?

Myelin is a fatty substance that insulates axons, speeding up the conduction of action potentials. It's like a coating that makes signals travel faster.

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What is a synapse?

A synapse is the junction between two neurons where communication occurs. It's like a meeting point where neurons exchange information.

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What are neurotransmitters?

Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers released by the presynaptic neuron that bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, triggering a response. They are the messengers of the synapse.

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Broca's hypothesis on brain size

Broca's suggestion was that brain size determined intelligence. However, he wasn't able to prove this, and his theory was used to justify racism and sexism.

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Correlation between brain size and intelligence

The correlation between brain size and intelligence is weak, and most studies show no consistent relationship. This debunks the idea that bigger brains are smarter.

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Overrepresentation of critical body parts in sensory maps

Areas of the brain dedicated to specific functions, like playing an instrument, become larger with practice. This suggests that the brain is adaptable and can change according to our experiences.

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Hippocampus and taxi drivers

Taxi drivers have a larger hippocampus compared to non-taxi drivers, and the size is correlated with the years spent driving. This suggests that spatial navigation can physically alter brain structures.

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Cortical thickness and IQ

The prefrontal cortex in high-IQ children thickens later than in children with lower IQs, suggesting that the highest intelligence involves a delayed but more complex development of this brain region.

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Disproving Broca's hypothesis

Broca's hypothesis was disproved when it was revealed that the brains of three eminent white males did not have particularly large brains. This highlights the flaws in his theory.

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Hippocampus and spatial memory

The hippocampus is the brain region involved in spatial memory and navigation, and its size is linked to the amount of experience with spatial tasks.

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Brain plasticity and intelligence

The brain's plastic nature means it can adapt and change in response to experiences, so certain skills can affect the brain's structure. This disproves the belief that brain size is the only indicator of intelligence.

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What is the internal capsule?

A white matter tract responsible for transmitting information from the cerebral cortex to the spinal cord.

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What are the basal ganglia and what do they do?

A group of structures involved in motor control, movement planning, and learning. Damage can lead to disorders like Parkinson's or Huntington's.

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What is the role of the thalamus?

A brain structure responsible for processing sensory information. It acts as a relay station between the senses and the cortex.

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What is the hippocampus and what does it do?

A brain structure crucial for learning and memory formation. It plays a key role in converting short-term memories to long-term memories.

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What is the hypothalamus responsible for?

A brain structure responsible for maintaining homeostasis, regulating hunger, thirst, body temperature, and other vital functions.

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What is the pineal gland and what does it produce?

A small gland in the brain that produces melatonin, a hormone important for regulating sleep-wake cycles.

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What is the midbrain?

A part of the brainstem that plays a role in sensory-motor integration, helping to coordinate movements.

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What is the pons?

A part of the brainstem that relays information from the cerebellum to the cerebrum.

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What is the medulla and what does it regulate?

A part of the brainstem responsible for regulating vital functions like breathing, swallowing, heart rate, and sleep. Damage to this area can result in a coma or death.

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What is the cerebellum?

A structure located at the back of the brain responsible for motor coordination, balance, and posture.

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What is an association tract?

A type of white matter tract that connects different areas within the same hemisphere of the brain.

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What is a commissure tract?

A type of white matter tract that connects equivalent areas in different hemispheres of the brain.

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What is a projection tract?

A type of white matter tract that connects areas in the cerebral cortex with structures in the subcortex, such as the thalamus, brainstem, and spinal cord.

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What are ventricles in the brain?

Fluid-filled chambers within the brain that contain cerebrospinal fluid, which provides cushioning and protection for the brain.

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What is the Circle of Willis?

The brain's blood supply is provided by two major arteries: the internal carotid and the basilar arteries. These arteries merge to form the Circle of Willis, a network of blood vessels that helps ensure continuous blood flow to the brain even if one of the arteries is blocked.

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Microcephaly

A genetic condition characterized by a smaller than normal brain size, often caused by damage to the microcephalin-1 gene, leading to developmental delays.

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Echolocation

The ability of some animals, such as bats, to use sound waves to navigate and locate objects. This relies on highly developed auditory brain regions.

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Principle of Proper Mass

The principle that the size of a brain region dedicated to a specific function is proportional to the complexity of that function. For example, animals relying heavily on vision will have larger visual processing areas in their brains.

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Sensory and Motor Maps

The brain's representation of the body, where different body parts are mapped onto specific areas of the sensory and motor cortex. More sensitive or frequently used body parts have larger representations.

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Hippocampus

A brain structure critical for learning and memory, especially long-term memory. Its size is linked to an animal's reliance on spatial memory and food storage abilities.

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Neocortex

The cerebral cortex is the outer layer of the brain, responsible for higher cognitive functions. It is more developed in primates, particularly in humans, and its size is linked to social complexity.

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Social Intelligence Theory

A theory that suggests the evolution of complex brain structures, particularly the neocortex, was driven by the need to navigate and interact within complex social groups in primates.

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Face Regions

Brain regions specialized in recognizing faces, especially important for social interaction. Their size is influenced by the complexity of the social environment.

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Hyperstriatum Ventral Pars Caudale (HVC)

A brain region in songbirds involved in learning and producing songs. Larger HVC is associated with more complex and varied song repertoires.

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Broca's and Wernicke's Areas

Broca's area is a region in the brain involved in language production, while Wernicke's area is involved in language comprehension. They exist in non-human primates but are more developed in humans.

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Brain Specialization

The idea that different brain regions are specialized for different functions, reflecting an animal's specific talents or skills, like echolocation in bats or language in humans.

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Study Notes

Ancient Egyptian Perspective on the Brain

  • Brain injuries were linked to behavioral changes on the opposite body side.
  • The brain was not preserved for the afterlife, as it was deemed less important.

Plato, Aristotle, and the Soul

  • Plato and Aristotle proposed a tripartite soul (mind): logos (reason), thymos (emotion), and eros (desire).
  • Aristotle believed the heart housed the soul, reasoning that it developed first and was more vital than the brain. This view, at least partially, stemmed from the frequent survival of individuals after brain injury but not heart injury.

Hippocrates, Galen, and Materialism

  • Hippocrates and Galen posited the brain controlled pain, sorrow, thought, and sensory experiences (including judgments of beauty and evil).
  • They explained brain injury-induced convulsions on the opposite side of the body.
  • They argued that diseases had natural causes, not divine interventions.
  • Galen theorized about water-filled ventricles and fluid flow through nerves.
  • Galen's work introduced the four humors: blood (enthusiasm), phlegm (peacefulness), black bile (wisdom), and yellow bile (bad temper).

Renaissance Contributions (Leonardo and Michelangelo)

  • Leonardo da Vinci was inspired by Galen's ideas and focused on fluid-filled brain regions.
  • Three ventricles were linked to different functions, specifically the lateral ventricle with common sense.

Descartes and Dualism

  • Descartes proposed the mind and brain were distinct but interconnected, communicating through a connection point.
  • A broken connection was attributed to 'losing one's mind' (mental illness).
  • Dualism had implications for the view of mental illness and treatment in asylums.
  • Challenges to dualism highlighted the limitations of the theory regarding the role of the pineal gland (function in sleep/melatonin) and the interactions between mind and body.
  • The theory also suggested a disregard for mental health patients that weren't regarded as possessing a soul.

Structure and Function in the Brain - Thomas Willis

  • Thomas Willis introduced terms like cerebral cortex, corpus callosum, and corpus striatum.
  • He created accurate brain diagrams (partnered with Christopher Wren).
  • Willis, despite some incorrect theories, was a pioneer in assigning functions to brain regions instead of solely focusing on ventricles.

Gall, Phrenology, and Localization of Function

  • Gall suggested different brain areas controlled different behaviors.
  • Phrenology (examining skull shape to infer brain function) was flawed, given the brain's soft tissue.
  • However, Gall's concepts laid groundwork for modern neuroscience regarding the association of specific mental activities with particular brain regions.

Equipotentiality (Flourens and Lashley)

  • Flourens and Lashley challenged functional localization.
  • Their studies on pigeons and rats suggested the size of the brain lesion, not its location, was more critical for behavioral effects.

Brain Lesions and Behavioural Deficits (Broca and Wernicke)

  • Broca's patient with aphasia (“Tan”) had a lesion in the language area (now Broca's area).
  • Wernicke's patient had a language comprehension deficit (Wernicke's area).
  • These patients and studies showcased the link between specific brain damage and impairments in different cognitive functions.

Golgi, Cajal, Brodmann, and the Neuron Doctrine

  • Golgi developed a stain enabling neuron visibility, though his interpretation was incorrect (neurons as interconnected).
  • Cajal observed synapses and proposed the neuron doctrine (neurons as separate entities), distinguishing axons (sending information) from dendrites (receiving information).
  • Brodmann's work refined the localization of functions in the cortex based on cellular architecture.

Techniques in Cognitive Neuroscience

Single-Neuron Recording

  • Individual neuron electrical activity (action potentials) is recorded using electrodes.
  • Averaging responses over trials measures neuron responsiveness to inputs.

EEG and MEG

  • Electrodes on the scalp record brainwave activity from many neurons.
  • Averaging response times reveals brain activity and region-specific activation patterns.
  • MEG uses magnetic fields (less affected by the scalp) for a similar purpose.

fMRI

  • Tracks blood flow changes associated with neural activity, as neural activity requires energy.
  • Measures magnetic signal changes associated with increased blood flow to active regions.

TMS

  • Non-invasive method for disrupting brain processing using magnetic pulses.
  • The pulse temporarily disrupts neural signaling in targeted areas, helping investigate their role in specific behaviours.

Historical Overview

Galvani

  • Early models of electrical signal conduction in nerves.
  • Observation of frog leg muscle response to electricity during lightning strikes.
  • Galvani's nephew conducted controversial experiments on body tissue reactivation.

Mitsugorõ VIII

  • Experienced poisoning from puffer fish due to tetrodotoxin, preventing action potential transmission.

Neuron Structure and Function

  • Neurons have cell bodies, dendrites, and axons, transmitting electrical signals.
  • Membrane ion channels and pumps control ion movement, causing electrical signals.

Forces Governing Ion Movement

  • Ions move along concentration and electrical gradients.
  • Example: Potassium moving to balance concentration and electrical differences.

Sodium-Potassium Pump

  • Actively maintains higher sodium outside and potassium inside the neuron by moving 2 Na+ out for every 2 K+ in.
  • Maintaining charge difference (resting potential).

Threshold and Action Potential

  • Resting neuron is negatively charged (~−65mV).
  • Positive current results in depolarization (EPSP–increasing action potential likelihood)
  • Negative current results in hyperpolarization (IPSP–decreasing action potential likelihood)
  • Action potential is "all or nothing."
  • Amplitude and duration of an action potential are independent of the strength of inputs.

Voltage-Gated Channels

  • Essential for action potentials.
  • Na+ channels open and close quickly.
  • K+ channels open and close more slowly.
  • This sequential opening and closing creates the action potential waveform.
  • Myelinated axons increase AP conduction speed.
  • Myelin sheath malfunction (e.g., multiple sclerosis) disrupts nerve conduction.

The Synapse

  • Synaptic transmission (Otto Loewi's discovery) involves neurotransmitter release.
  • Arrival of action potential opens calcium channels, leading to neurotransmitter release into the synapse.
  • Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, changing its electrical potential (excitatory or inhibitory).
  • Neurotransmitter removal from the synapse ends its effect—reuptake or enzyme degradation.

Summation of Postsynaptic Potentials

  • EPSPs and IPSPs are integrated by the neuron (summed).
  • If the sum reaches threshold, an action potential is generated at the axon hillock.

Pre-reading: Surface Features of the Brain

  • Cerebral hemispheres, cerebellum, and brainstem.
  • Hemispheres dominate the brain volume.
  • Folds (gyri) and grooves (sulci/fissures).
  • Cerebrum is one sheet of neurons.
  • Layer variations exist across brain regions.

Organisation of the Cerebral Cortex

  • Layers have distinct cell types/densities.
  • Layers' functional significance unclear.
  • Each hemisphere has four lobes (frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital).

Frontal Lobe

  • Most anterior, separating from parietal by the central sulcus.
  • Precentral gyrus (motor cortex) controls voluntary movement.

Temporal Lobe

  • Below frontal, separated by the lateral fissure.
  • Top deals with auditory input; inferior processes higher visual info, object recognition, and categorization.

Parietal Lobe

  • Behind central sulcus, superior to the lateral fissure.
  • Postcentral gyrus (somatosensory cortex) processes touch and sensory information.

Occipital Lobe

  • Visual cortex marked by calcarine sulcus.

Corpus Callosum

  • Connects the two hemispheres.

Midbrain (Thalamus, Pons, Cerebellum)

  • Midbrain: Sensorimotor integration.
  • Pons: Cerebellum communication.
  • Cerebellum: Motor control.

Brain's Internal Features - Specific Structures

  • Thalamus, hippocampus, hypothalamus, pineal gland, basal ganglia, amygdala, brainstem (pons, medulla, midbrain).
  • White matter tracts connect different areas (association, commissural, projection).
  • Ventricles and meninges protect and cushion the brain.
  • Blood supply crucial.

Psychopathy and the Brain

  • Raine studied antisocial personality disorder/psychopathy and brain activity.
  • Findings showed reduced activity in certain prefrontal cortex regions.

Neurons and Glial Cells

  • Neurons are signalling units.
  • Glial cells (astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia) perform crucial supportive functions, not directly involved in signalling.

CNS & PNS, Grey & White Matter

  • CNS: Brain and spinal cord
  • PNS: Outside CNS neurones
  • Grey: cell bodies
  • White: axon tracts.

Lobes of the Cerebrum and Section Planes.

  • Four lobes (temporal, occipital, parietal, frontal).
  • Section planes (coronal, horizontal, sagittal).

Savant Syndrome

  • Individuals with neurological damage can possess extraordinary talents contrasting with other cognitive deficits.

Neuroplasticity

  • Brain adaptations to experience-related demands—evolution from animal studies to human.

Allometry, Brain Size, and Behaviour.

  • Allometry considers body size when investigating brain size and behaviour.
  • Humans exhibit elevated residual brain size relative to body size compared to many species in the primate order.
  • Different brain sizes are linked to dietary needs and social complexity.

Genetics and Brain Size Evolution

  • Genetic variations (e.g., microcephalin gene) can influence brain development and size in humans.
  • Evolutionary changes are connected to brain size variations across species.
  • Principles of proper mass help explain the varying sizes of brain regions based on the functions they perform.

Evolution, Social Intelligence, and Learning

  • Size of regions like hippocampus and neocortex correlates with social/cognitive complexity and demands.
  • Faces, song production in birds, language processing areas, are reflected by brain anatomy.
  • History of interpretations and biases in brain size-related comparisons (e.g., Broca).
  • Correlations may exist between intelligence tests and cortical thickness in certain regions (mostly in early development).
  • Experiences and uses of body parts show overrepresentation in neuronal maps. (e.g., musicians’ fingers). This phenomenon is linked to neuroplasticity.

Taxi Drivers and Hippocampus

  • Taxi drivers with more experience have larger hippocampi, correlating with their navigational expertise. This shows relationship between experience and brain structure.

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Description

Explore the ancient beliefs surrounding the brain and soul through this engaging quiz. Test your knowledge on the perspectives of Egyptian culture, Aristotle, Hippocrates, Galen, and Plato regarding mental functions and behavior. Dive into the history of psychology and philosophy to uncover how ancient thinkers understood the mind.

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