Ancient Rome: Origins and Etruscan Influence

Rome: An Overview

• All roads lead to Rome", indicating Rome's central importance.
• Rome was not built in a day", emphasizing its grand scale and the time it took to develop.
• When in Rome, do as the Romans do", suggesting the emulation of Roman customs.

Founding of Rome

• Legend states Romulus and Remus, descendants of Trojan hero Aeneas, were raised by a wolf and later founded Rome.
• Rome was founded by the Indo-European tribe known as Latins around 1000 BCE.
• Rome location provided easy access to the Mediterranean Sea.

Etruscans

• The Etruscans were a monarchy that ruled Rome from approximately 616-509 BCE.
• They constructed Rome's first walls and sewer system.
• Cultural contributions:
  • Alphabet and number system
  • Arches in construction
  • Bronze and gold artistry
  • Gladiator games and chariot Races
• The Etruscans were overthrown after a Roman revolt, leading to self-government.

Rome as a Republic

• Elected officials governed the state.
• Patricians:
  • Controlled politics, religion, economics, and the military
  • Employed "patronage," offering support to lower-ranking families in exchange for loyalty
• Plebeians:
  • Common people with fewer rights
  • Experienced tension due to disparities in rights, money, and power
• Roman government structure consisted of Patricians/Senate at the top, followed by Plebeians, and then slaves.
• Constitution allowed for "firmness".

Roman Government

• Senate:
  • Composed of 300 members, exclusively patricians
  • Advised officials, managed finances, and handled foreign relations
• Popular assemblies:
  • All citizens voted on laws and elected officials
• Magistrates:
  • Enforced laws, governed, and served as priests
• Consuls:
  • Two men were elected annually as chief executives and army commanders
• Law of the 12 Tables:
  • Created in 451-450 BCE
  • Forced Patricians to codify all laws
  • Laws were publicly displayed in the Roman Forum.
  • Banned marriage between patricians and plebeians.
• Values:
  • Strength
  • Patriarchy
  • Justice was based on appearances
  • Man to man laws
  • Death penalty
  • Slavery

Life in the Republic

• The city center was The Forum:
  • Served as a public square
  • Housed government buildings and temples
  • Site of Senate meetings
  • Gathering place for leaders and citizens
  • Contained shops
  • Hosted public celebrations
• Patricians
  • Enjoyed city and country homes with amenities such as running water and baths
  • Actively participated in politics
  • Proficiency in public speaking was essential
  • Land ownership was idealized, restricting senators from non-land-related careers
• Plebeians
  • Most of Rome's nearly 1 million residents lived in three to four-story apartments rented from Patricians
  • Were vulnerable to fires
  • Benefited from patrician-sponsored "bread and circuses"
  • Only Roman citizens could wear togas.
• Patrician Families
  • Paterfamilias held authority over family members and slaves
  • Adoption ensured the continuation of family names
  • Women could own property but had limited rights
  • Children were tutored in various subjects
  • Poor families lacked access to private education
  • Women gained more freedom as shopkeepers
• Entertainment:
  • Circuses, featuring chariot races
  • Circus Maximus: A racetrack accommodating 250,000 spectators
  • Gladiatorial combats, wild animal fights occurred at the coliseum an amphitheater that seated 50,000.
  • Some gladiators were very popular

Roman Religion

• Adopted and adapted Greek mythology
• Incorporated gods from Egyptian, Mesopotamian, and Persian cultures
• Each family had a household god.
• The emperor was eventually worshipped as a god.
• Natural phenomena were seen as divine signs interpreted by priests.

Roman Cultural Legacy

• Perfected scientific techniques
• Military service required Roman men between 17 and 46 with minimum property ownership.
• Expanded to dominate Italy by 265 BCE
• Imposed few conditions on conquered peoples
• Offered property rewards for military service in expanded territories

Roman Expansion

• Punic Wars (264-149 BCE):
  • Three wars fought between Rome and Carthage
  • Resulted in Rome's dominance in the Western Mediterranean
• Annexed Macedonia, Persia, and Egypt, installing Roman governors

Republic to Empire (100s BCE)

• Gracchi brothers advocated for economic reforms but were assassinated
• Gaius Marius eliminated property requirements for army enlistment (107 BCE)
• Troops became loyal to generals, influencing politics.
• Roman citizenship extended to other peoples of Italy after conflict in 91 BCE
• Lucius Cornelius Sulla (consul in 88 BCE):
  • Initiated civil war over republic reforms
  • Established dictatorship and murdered opponents, setting a precedent for future emperors

Julius Caesar (100-44 BCE)

• Conquered Gaul, defeated Pompey, and declared himself dictator for life in 44 BCE.
• Granted citizenship and land to veterans
• Assassinated on March 15th by senators fearing his ambition to become king

Octavian (Augustus)

• Adopted son and heir of Caesar
• Defeated Anthony and Cleopatra in 31 BCE to become sole ruler
• Named princeps (first citizen) and Augustus (revered one) by the Senate
• Augustan Age:
  • Ruled for over 40 years, sharing power with the Senate
  • Expanded the empire
  • Created police force and fire brigades in Rome.
  • Restored temples and supported culture

Pax Romana (27 BCE-180 CE)

• Stable government enforced laws and defended borders.
• Aristocracy was involved in governance at home and abroad.
• Strong legal system applied to all citizens.
• Extensive trade network
• Widespread trade: Crops, pottery, glassware, jewelry, meat, wool, furniture, and more were traded.
• 50,000 miles of roads connected the empire.

Social Life in Rome (Videos)

• Roman fathers had significant control over their daughters' marriages.
• Roman women's activities include fabric production and visits to public baths.
• Women had limited access to men's spaces like the Forum and Senate.
• Women could gain closer views of gladiatorial combat by becoming the sacred flame of Vesta.
• Slave punishment was common.
• The Coliseum could hold 50,000 spectators for events like gladiatorial combats, chariot races and staged naval battles.
• Naumachia were staged naval battles
• The Coliseum symbolized Rome’s power.
• Titus, Vespesian’s son, completed the Coliseum.
• Lavish displays of power were funded by the emperor.
• Engineers would flood the arena for aquatic events, using specialized flat-bottom boasts.
• Naval battles were later moved to their own nearby lake.
• The Coliseum later gained animal cages and trap doors.
• Liberia was a celebration of Roman citizenship.
• Suburra was a poor neighborhood prone to fires.
• Lucious’ brother's coming-of-age at 15 was significant due to high mortality rates.
• Bulla gave protection.
• Luscious could choose military service at 17 but could not engage in business deals until 25
• Fathers arranged marriages.
• Public baths were important.
• Bathing was done in peer groups.

Roman Empire

• Caesar was killed because he was viewed as destroying the Roman Republic.
• Senate consisted of patricians.
• Plebeians were the other group.
• Two chief executives were chosen by the Senate so one can take care of Rome domestically and the other can go off to fight in war.
• Julius Caesar:
  • Came from the senatorial class.
  • Conquered Gaul and invaded Britain.
  • Invaded Rome since he couldn't return without an army
  • Became consul and dictator and was eventually elected consul without a co-consul.
  • Senators stabbed Caesar in 44 BCE due to his excessive power.
• Civil war ensued between Antony and Octavian which was eventually won by Octavian who became Caesar Augustus and sole leader
• Caesar seized power.
• Power consolidating into one general, who gain importance during war and expansion, destroyed the Roman republic.
• Concrete and roads.
• Romans built upon and spread Greek thought, especially in Alexandria where kings funded museums.
• Ship building as an art.
• Science is abstract.
• Romans found that arches hold water better
• Roman highways
• Rome found that archers hold water better.
• These projects required slaves and the technologies were also political

The Roman Empire: Instability and Transition

• Rome's republican government became unstable, leading to dictatorship.
• Wealth increased but problems formed, e.g. military order breakdown, political changes.
• Rich with estates and slaves/poor were displaced soldiers with unstable income.
• Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus wanted to redistribute wealth and were killed
• Generals gained power by recruiting poor soldiers.
• Julius Caesar
  • Formed forces and became consul and then governor then dictator.
  • People like him because he granted citizenship to many people and many other things.
  • Was stabbed to death due to paranoia on his growing power.
• After his death Rome broke out in civil war.

The Roman World

• Roman values included discipline, strength, and loyalty.
• Wealth and status vastly influenced living conditions.
• Most Romans had few necessities.
• Gladiator contests were hosted.
• Religion:
  • Early followers would meet brutality and hardship
  • Jupiter, Juno, Minerva were the God and Goddesses

Twelve Tables of Rome:

• The Twelve Tables, enacted around 450 BCE, offer insights into social hierarchy, values, and legal priorities in ancient Rome. These laws favored patricians, granting distinct legal advantages over plebeians.
• The laws defined gender roles, granting men greater autonomy and rights, while women were confined to domestic roles with limited legal protections. Distinctions between free individuals and slaves underscored vast power disparities.
• Family Life and Property Rights:
  • These reflect Roman emphasis on family and honor, influencing inheritance, marriage, and property laws. The paterfamilias, or male head of household, held significant control.

Justice and Values

• Transparency and fairness were valued, showcased in laws related to justice. Trial by jury existed in some instances, with punishments clearly outlined.
• The laws reflected Romans’ value for maintaining order, safeguarding property, and upholding the influence of the powerful, providing a glimpse into their understanding of justice.
• Compared to the Code of Hammurabi and modern systems, differences arise in fairness, punishment, and individual rights. The Twelve Tables were comparable to the other two systems, but modern systems tend to focus more on protecting individual rights for all people.