Ancient Mesopotamia

Sumerian City-States

• Emerged around 4500 BCE in southern Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq)
• Characterized by independent city-states, each with its own government, architecture, and culture
• Notable city-states:
  • Ur: Known for its royal tombs and ziggurat (step pyramid)
  • Uruk: Associated with the epic hero Gilgamesh
  • Nippur: Center of worship for the Sumerian god Enlil
  • Lagash: Recognized for its sophisticated irrigation system
• Innovations:
  • Cuneiform writing system
  • Wheel
  • Irrigation systems
  • Bronze metallurgy
  • Development of city governments and bureaucracy

Akkadian Empire

• Founded by Sargon the Great around 2334 BCE
• First multi-ethnic empire in history, stretching from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean
• Notable achievements:
  • Spread of Akkadian language and culture throughout the empire
  • Development of a standardized system of weights and measures
  • Construction of roads and public buildings
  • Military conquests and expansion
• Decline:
  • Weakened by internal conflicts and external pressures
  • Eventually fragmented into smaller states

Babylonian Culture

• Characterized by:
  • Cosmopolitanism: Blend of Sumerian, Akkadian, and Amorite influences
  • Sophisticated literature: Epic of Gilgamesh, Enuma Elish, and Tiamat myth
  • Architecture: Hanging Gardens of Babylon, Ishtar Gate, and temples
  • Astrology and astronomy: Development of zodiac and planetary observations
  • Codification of laws: Hammurabi's Code (circa 1754 BCE)

Assyrian Empire

• Emerged around 2500 BCE in northern Mesopotamia
• Notable rulers:
  • Ashurnasirpal II (883-859 BCE): Expanded empire through military campaigns
  • Sennacherib (705-681 BCE): Built a new capital, Nineveh, and defeated Babylon
  • Esarhaddon (681-669 BCE): Conquered Egypt and expanded empire's borders
• Characteristics:
  • Military prowess and expansion
  • Imperial administration and bureaucracy
  • Development of roads, canals, and public buildings
  • Art and architecture: Palaces, temples, and bas-reliefs

Neo-Babylonian Period

• Last period of Babylonian dominance (626-539 BCE)
• Notable rulers:
  • Nabopolassar (626-605 BCE): Overthrew Assyrian rule and established Neo-Babylonian Empire
  • Nebuchadnezzar II (605-562 BCE): Conquered Jerusalem, destroyed the Temple, and deported Jews
  • Nabonidus (556-539 BCE): Last Neo-Babylonian king, defeated by Cyrus the Great
• Characteristics:
  • Revival of Babylonian culture and architecture
  • Military campaigns and expansion
  • Development of astronomy and mathematics
  • Eventual fall to the Persian Empire under Cyrus the Great