Ancient Islam: 7th-10th Centuries

• Ancient Islam spans the 7th to 10th centuries.
• It covers Prophet Muhammad's life, the first Muslim community (umma), the Rashidun Caliphate, and the early Umayyad Caliphate.
• This era provided the groundwork for Islamic civilization.
• It greatly shaped the Middle East's religious, political, and cultural aspects.

The Prophet Muhammad and the Rise of Islam (c. 610-632)

• Muhammad, born in Mecca around 570 CE, is Islam's last prophet.
• He received revelations, believed by Muslims as direct words from God (Allah).
• These revelations were compiled into the Quran.
• The core message focused on monotheism (Tawhid).
• It also emphasized submission to God and social justice.
• Early followers were few and faced persecution in Mecca.
• The Hijra (migration) to Medina in 622 CE was a turning point.
• Muhammad formed a political and religious community in Medina.
• The Constitution of Medina defined rights/responsibilities for Medina's groups.
• Battles between Mecca and Medina led to Muhammad's return to Mecca in 630 CE.
• By his death in 632 CE, most of Arabia had converted to Islam.

The Rashidun Caliphate (632-661)

• After Muhammad's death, succession was a challenge.
• Abu Bakr was the first caliph, beginning the Rashidun Caliphate.
• Abu Bakr worked to unite the Muslim community and stop rebellions.
• Under Umar, the second caliph, Islamic rule quickly expanded beyond Arabia.
• Conquests included Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and parts of Persia.
• Uthman, the third caliph, standardized the Quran.
• His policies led to discontent, resulting in his assassination in 656 CE.
• Ali, the fourth caliph, faced internal conflict and civil war (First Fitna).
• Ali was assassinated in 661 CE, ending the Rashidun Caliphate.
• The Rashidun Caliphate is considered Islam's golden age by Sunni Muslims.

Expansion and Conquests

• Rapid Islamic expansion was due to religious zeal, military organization, and the weakness of the Byzantine and Sasanian Empires.
• The promise of booty and land attracted many warriors.
• Islamic armies were known for mobility and cavalry.
• Conquered people were offered religious tolerance for a tax (jizya).

The Umayyad Caliphate (661-750)

• Muawiyah, the governor of Syria, started the Umayyad Caliphate after Ali's death.
• The capital moved from Medina to Damascus.
• The Umayyads made the caliphate a hereditary dynasty.
• Further territorial expansion occurred.
• Conquests reached North Africa, Spain (Al-Andalus), and Central Asia.
• The Battle of Tours in 732 CE marked the end of expansion into Europe.
• Islamic administration and infrastructure developed during the Umayyad period.
• Arabic became the official language.
• The Umayyads faced opposition for favoring Arabs and their lifestyle.
• The Abbasid Revolution overthrew the Umayyads in 750 CE.

Political and Social Structures

• The caliph was the supreme religious and political leader.
• The caliph was advised by a council (shura).
• Governors (emirs) ruled provinces.
• Qadis (judges) administered Islamic law (Sharia).
• Social structure was hierarchical, with Arabs privileged.
• Mawali (non-Arab converts) faced discrimination.
• Dhimmis (protected people), including Jews and Christians, could practice their religions but faced restrictions and taxes.
• Slavery existed, regulated by Islamic law.

Cultural and Intellectual Developments

• The early Islamic period initiated a rich intellectual and cultural tradition.
• Islamic scholars preserved and translated Greek/Persian texts.
• Advancements were made in mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and philosophy.
• Islamic art and architecture developed, featuring geometric patterns, calligraphy, and no representational images in religious contexts.
• Major architectural achievements include the Dome of the Rock and the Great Mosque of Damascus.
• Islamic law (Sharia) was systematized.

Religious Developments

• The Quran was the main religious text.
• The Hadith (Prophet Muhammad's sayings and actions) were collected.
• Different schools of Islamic law (madhahib) emerged.
• Sufism, a mystical branch of Islam, began to develop.
• The split between Sunni and Shia Muslims solidified due to disagreements over Muhammad's succession.

The Abbasid Revolution and its Aftermath

• The Abbasids, claiming descent from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas, gained support from disgruntled groups.
• The Abbasid Revolution overthrew the Umayyads in 750 CE.
• The capital moved from Damascus to Baghdad.
• The Abbasid period is considered a golden age of Islamic culture and learning.
• The Abbasid Caliphate declined due to internal issues, economic problems, and the rise of independent dynasties.
• By the 10th century, the Abbasid Caliphate lost power and influence.

Key Concepts

• Tawhid: The oneness of God (Allah).
• Quran: Islam's holy book, believed to be God's direct word.
• Sunnah: The example of Prophet Muhammad, in the Hadith.
• Sharia: Islamic law based on the Quran and Sunnah.
• Umma: The Muslim community.
• Caliph: The successor to Prophet Muhammad.
• Jizya: A tax paid by non-Muslims for protection.
• Dhimmi: A protected non-Muslim under Islamic rule.