Ancient History: Indus Valley Civilization

• Ancient history covers from the beginning of recorded human history to the Early Middle Ages
• Key events include the rise and fall of civilizations, technological advancements, plus the development of major religions and philosophies

Indus Valley Civilization

• Flourished from around 3300-1700 BCE in the Indus River Valley (present-day Pakistan and northwest India)
• Known for its advanced urban planning, sophisticated infrastructure, plus a standardized system of weights and measures
• Major sites include Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, known as well-organized cities with brick houses, drainage systems, and public baths
• Economy was based on agriculture, trade, and craftsmanship
• Notable artifacts include seals with animal motifs and undeciphered script, pottery, jewelry, and figurines
• The civilization declined due to climate change, environmental degradation, and possibly Aryan migrations

Stone Ages

• Refers to a prehistoric period when stone was widely used to make implements
• Divided into the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age), Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age), and Neolithic (New Stone Age)

Paleolithic

• The use of crude stone tools characterized this time, with hunting and gathering as the primary means of subsistence
• Early humans were nomadic, living in small groups or bands
• Evidence of early art, like cave paintings, suggests the development of symbolic thought

Mesolithic

• A transitional period between the Paleolithic and Neolithic eras
• The development of smaller, more refined stone tools (microliths) characterized this time
• Increased reliance on fishing and the hunting of smaller game
• Gradual shift towards settled communities in some regions

Neolithic

• Marked by the development of agriculture, domestication of animals, plus the establishment of permanent settlements
• Polished stone tools became more common
• Pottery was used for storage and cooking
• Led to population growth, social stratification, plus the emergence of early villages and towns

Vedic Period

• Followed the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization, from about 1500-500 BCE
• Characterized by the composition of the Vedas, sacred texts that provide insights into the religious, social, and cultural life of the time
• Early Vedic Period (1500-1000 BCE): The Rigveda was composed, describing pastoral nomads organized into tribal units
• Society was divided into four classes: Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (merchants), and Shudras (laborers)
• Later Vedic Period (1000-500 BCE): The other Vedas (Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda) were compiled, reflecting a shift towards settled agriculture and the rise of larger kingdoms
• The caste system became more rigid
• The focus of religious rituals shifted from simple offerings to elaborate sacrifices
• The Upanishads, philosophical texts exploring concepts such as Brahman (the ultimate reality) and Atman (the individual self), emerged towards the end of this period

Buddhism

• Founded by Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha) in the 6th century BCE in ancient India
• Central teachings revolve around the Four Noble Truths: the truth of suffering, the truth of the cause of suffering, the truth of the end of suffering, and the truth of the path that leads to the end of suffering
• The Eightfold Path is the path to liberation, encompassing right understanding, thought, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and concentration
• Emphasis on concepts such as karma (action and consequence), dharma (the teachings of the Buddha), and nirvana (the state of enlightenment)
• Two major branches: Theravada Buddhism (the School of the Elders) and Mahayana Buddhism (the Great Vehicle)
• Theravada emphasizes individual liberation through self-discipline and meditation
• Mahayana emphasizes the bodhisattva ideal, where individuals strive to achieve enlightenment to help all beings
• Spread throughout Asia, influencing the cultures of Tibet, China, Korea, Japan, and Southeast Asia

Jainism

• An ancient Indian religion that emphasizes non-violence (ahimsa), asceticism, and the pursuit of spiritual liberation
• Traced back to a lineage of 24 Tirthankaras (spiritual teachers), with Parshvanatha and Mahavira being the most recent and historically significant
• Mahavira (6th century BCE) is considered the last Tirthankara and played a crucial role in organizing and spreading Jainism
• Core principles include ahimsa (non-violence), satya (truthfulness), asteya (non-stealing), brahmacharya (celibacy), and aparigraha (non-attachment)
• Believes in the concept of karma as a material substance that clings to the soul, binding it to the cycle of rebirth
• Stresses the importance of right faith, right knowledge, and right conduct as the path to liberation (moksha)
• Two major sects: Digambara (sky-clad) and Svetambara (white-clad)
• Digambara monks practice complete nudity as a symbol of non-attachment
• Svetambara monks wear white robes
• Jainism has made significant contributions to Indian philosophy, art, and literature, and continues to be practiced by a small but influential community in India and around the world