Ancient Greek Society

Unique Aspects of Greek Society

• The Greeks were the first to explain the world using rational and natural terms instead of relying on the supernatural
• Athenian society made civic decisions through open debate
• Greek society had checks and balances on power
• Athenians at all levels could freely express ideas and leaders considered what people wanted
• Served as a foundation and heritage for Western society and democracy

Geography

• Ancient Greece featured rough mountains, narrow valleys and no navigable rivers
• The land was poor in resources
• The sea served as the equivalent of rivers for civilizations such as China, Egypt, India, and Mesopotamia
• Three-fourths of the area was covered by mountains
• The highest mountain was Mt. Olympus
• Rugged terrain made transport and communication difficult
• Sixty miles of travel could take one week
• Unification into one government was difficult, as people were content living in city-states
• The Hellespont is the same as the Dardanelles and the location of Troy
• The Bosphorus is the entrance to the Black Sea and is the location of Constantinople
• The peninsula had a maximum population of 2 million
• The land could only support a small population
• Crops included grains, olives, and grapes
• Greece was also known as Hellas
• Temperatures were moderate and rain occurred only in winter
• Men spent their lives outdoors
• The agora or marketplace was the center of daily life and civic/religious celebrations
• Gymnasiums and political meetings were also held in the agora
• Taking part in civic life was considered a virtue and a duty

Minoans (c. 2000 – 1400 BCE)

• Named after King Minos, a Mycenaean king of Crete, though no records indicate his leadership
• Knossos was an unfortified "palace-city" that was possibly just a lavish dwelling
• There is no clear evidence how their society was ruled
• Similar to the Phoenicians, they were traders, not conquerors
• Their society traded for metallurgy resources and colorful dyes
• Their art does not depict military aspects or weapons
• Their art depicts a wealthy, stylish, active lifestyle
• Art indicates women enjoyed prominence at gatherings and possibly social equality
• The status of women was extremely rare in the ancient world considering the societal complexity
• Homes featured advanced plumbing for bathing and toilets, on par with the Indus River Valley
• Their exaggerated society was likely a subject of Plato’s Atlantis
• The story taught Athenians a lesson about arrogance while Athens expanded and became corrupt
• It was during the Delian League era and the Peloponnesian War with Sparta
• Linear A remains undecipherable, so there is no evidence they were early Greeks
• DNA evidence suggests Cretan remains from the Minoan period came from Neolithic European mainland people, not Southwest Asian or African people
• Their society included reverence for the bull, architectural styles, wrestling, boxing, and a high regard for the human form.
• The Mycenaean Greeks continued these traditions
• Cultural exchange occurred with Mesopotamian and Egyptian counterparts
• They survived a volcanic eruption on Thera (modern Santorini) around 1628 BCE
• They rebuilt and prospered until the Mycenaeans conquered them around 1450 BCE

Mycenaeans (c. 2000 – 1200 BCE)

• They were mainland Greeks during the Bronze Age
• They arrived as part of the migrations from India to the Fertile Crescent
• These were Indo-European migrations
• Mycenae was the capital city
• The palaces of warrior-kings featured 20 ft thick walls and ruled from 1600 to 1200 BCE
• Piracy and conquest formed the basis of wealth
• Most people were stone tool farmers
• These are believed to be the early Greeks of the Trojan War
• Troy was a city in Asia Minor destroyed by a Greek army via trickery around 1200 BCE
• Homer was a Greek poet who wrote the story around 750 BCE
• Heinrich Schliemann discovered Troy in its described location in 1871 CE
• Archaeological evidence included nine layers of city life, with Troy VI or VII considered plausible
• Around 1450 BC they invaded the Minoan world and adopted their culture, albeit a less refined form
• Conquered by an unknown people around 1200 BCE
• This occurred at the same time as the "People of the Sea" attacked the Egyptians and Hittites
• Their language was an early form of Greek called Linear B

The Dark Ages (c. 1150 – 750 BCE)

• Migrants or invaders moved into Mycenae around 1200 BCE as part of the "Bronze Age Collapse"
• Groups affected by this collapse include Mycenaeans, Minoans, Hittites, New Kingdom Egypt, Assyrians, Kassites, Cypriots, Canaanites, and Mitannians
• They possessed iron weapons and were against the bronze weapons of the Mycenaeans
• They were less skilled in tools and pottery and were considered poor traders
• No one used Mycenaean Linear B so writing skills were lost
• Called the Dark Ages due to a 400 year gap with no written records
• Writing was reinvented by adding vowels to the Phoenician alphabet
• An oral tradition began
• Poets called bards told heroic poems called epics
• Homer lived from 900 or 750 BCE
• His identity is not known and he may represent several authors
• He wrote or compiled The Iliad and The Odyssey
• The Iliad tells the story of heroes at war outside Troy, focusing on individual duels in place of groups
• The Greek Achilles kills the Trojan Hector.
• The Odyssey is about the adventures of the Greek hero Odysseus in the decade after the Trojan War.
• The Odyssey demonstrated arête which is the Greek ideal of courage, perseverance, the search for fame/glory, excellence, achievement, and self-expression

Olympic Games

• The games began in 776 ВСЕ and occurred at Olympia for 5 days
• The prize was honor and fame
• Personal excellence was shown while glorifying your polis
• A bond was created through a common Greek heritage
• Qualities of arête were reinforced

Greek Religion

• Although Greeks honored the gods, they did not create a morality code restricting the individual
• They worshipped gods with human-like qualities
• Gods had passions, emotions, and faults as well as being unpredictable and irrational
• Gods quarreled with each other but were immortal
• The twelve most powerful gods lived at Mt. Olympus
• Local gods and spirits were honored
• No priestly class existed as officials were ordinary citizens in every day roles
• No priestly class intervened in politics
• There was no formal church
• A code of behavior was allowed to develop based on society
• Civic responsibilities were prioritized and the individual was empowered
• Religion was linked to government and civic pride

Emergence of City-States

• The city-state was called a polis
• They were 500 to 50 sq. miles, except Sparta at 5000 sq. miles
• Citizens were responsible for a city-state’s welfare and only men could be citizens
• Citizens met in the agora (market place) or acropolis (fortified hilltop)
• City-states ideally contained 5,000 to 10,000 citizens
• Citizens were free and rational individuals making decisions via open debate
• Leaders listened and citizens expressed their ideas
• After warrior-kings, noble families ruled through an aristocracy and obtained power through birth
• Aristocracy is a form of oligarchy (government by a few)
• The change from bronze to iron allowed the creation of a citizen army
• Bronze weapons (copper and tin) were scarce and only affordable by nobles
• Foot soldiers were called hoplites while larger formations used new tactics, called a phalanx
• Disgruntled nobles called tyrants could also lead citizen armies against aristocratic rulers
• Tyrants gained power through their own efforts, but not by birth right as in an aristocracy
• Tyrants were not viewed negatively because they overthrew oligarchies (rule by the privileged few)
• The property they conquered was divided and they were great builders
• Settlements called colonies were founded to absorb the excess populations of city-states

Sparta's Uniqueness

• The city-state and its periphery was called Lacedaemon and located on the Peloponnesus in southern Greece
• Sparta conquered its western neighbors in Messenia in 725 BCE
• This addressed Sparta’s overpopulation and lack of opportunity as the land was fertile
• The conquered people were treated as slaves (helots) forced to stay on the land they worked
• They revolted in 600 BCE, but the Spartans put it down
• Spartans used the Code of Lycurgus, a harsh set of laws
• This harsh code prepared Spartans for survival in a hostile environment where helots outnumbered Spartans 11 to 1
• It also prepared Spartans for future revolts and invasions
• They taught Spartan boys how to become disciplined and well-trained soldiers through deprivation and harsh treatment
• Soldiers lived a military life from age seven and valued duty, strength, and discipline
• Beauty, literature, art, architecture, individuality, and freedom of thought were ignored
• Set the standards for a good Spartan
• From 600 to 371 BCE, Sparta had the most powerful army in the Greek world
• Sparta had three classes
• "Equals" were soldiers who could vote and equal in wealth and status
• "Perioeci" or neighbors were artisans who were not citizens and could not vote
• "Helots" were slaves who had no rights
• It was the only city-state to provide government paid public education for its citizens
• It was for practical purposes, not as diverse as in Athens where education was private
• Women had every right except voting and could inherit property as well as get a limited education
• By 800 BCE, Sparta was dominated by warrior-kings
• By 700 BCE, five ephors (judges of overseers) supervised the kings’ activities
• By 650 BCE, Sparta suffered the Messenian (helot) revolt
• By 600 BCE, Sparta barely survived a revolt and enacted the Code of Lycurgus
• Private land ownership was abolished and shared equally among Sparta’s 9000 citizens
• A popular assembly body of citizens was established with the right to elect ephors and approve or veto proposals of a 30-member Council of Elders
• A nearly lifetime military commitment of 30 years began
• Life expectancy was in one's forties
• It responded to the possibility of revolt via an inhumanly tough and militant society

Athenian Society

• Athens and the area under its control was called Attica
• Values and outlook were in sharp contrast to Sparta
• Encouraged freedom of thought and expression
• Athens responded to economic crisis differently compared to the Spartans
• Reforms were enacted which created a democracy which is a government where all citizens can take part
• Aristocrats replaced a king by 800 BCE
• By 700 BCE, nine archons (judges) were chosen by the aristocratic Council of Four Hundred with a popular assembly that rarely met which led to civil unrest
• By 594, Solon passed laws stating that laws originate in the Council of Four Hundred with ratification from the popular assembly
• Wealth, not birth, became the criteria for council membership and the assembly became the court of appeals on all archon decisions
• Tyrants such as Pisistratus seized power by 560 BCE due to the chaotic nature of the reforming period under Solon
• By 508 BCE, Cleisthenes resumed the reforming spirit - laws and decisions came from the popular assembly
• The Council of Five Hundred was selected by lot from the ten tribes (districts) of Athens
  • They advised the assembly and supervised the archons as the assembly was open to all citizens and met every ten days

Athens Under the Reformers

• Solon enacted reforms in 594 BCE at the request of the aristocracy
• Debts were cancelled and the enslaved were freed
• Athenian society organized into four classes based on wealth to eliminate aristocracy and create social and business mobility
• There also became new possibilities for corruption
• Farming was encouraged by giving incentives to produce
• Every father had to teach his son a trade
• The government was very inclusive
  • Nine governors were chosen from 40 elected candidates representing the four major classes and meeting wealth criteria
  • The dictates of a general assembly of all citizens were followed - Council of 400 prepared the agenda for the general assembly and joined a state council after one year
• A legal system began and all male citizens attended assembly where debate and vote would decide matters
  • Any citizen could bring charges and a right of appeal was introduced.
• Pisistratus was a reforming tyrant who succeeded Solon in 560 BCE
  • Land was redistributed and commerce/industry was promoted
  • Extensive public works projects were implemented and he become a patron of the arts
  • His sons succeeded him but were assassinated or exiled
• Cleisthenes continued the reforms in 508 BCE
  • Power of the assembly increased to make and enact laws
  • The Council of the Five Hundred advised the assembly and proposed laws, with members chosen by lot
  • The original four tribes (parties) expanded to ten
  • The countryside was reorganized to avoid historic rivalries between coast, mountains, and the interior
  • The policy of ostracism/exile was instituted by a majority vote of the citizens to banish a person for 10 years
• Only 1/5 of Athenians were citizens and had to be born in Athens from Athenian parents
  • Women, slaves, and foreigners were excluded from politics
• Reformers brought Athens to a near-complete democracy
• Women were excluded from government and intellectual life
• Unlike Sparta, Athens created more political participation and relieved debt
• Checks on power by forming different government aspects where citizenry had the authority to rule itself occurred

Persian Wars (499 – 449 BC)

• Herodotus told the story
• The first war began in 499 BCE on the coastline of present-day Turkey called Ionia
• Darius conquered Ionia with its Greek speaking people even with Athenian assistance
• Persian forces attacked northeast of Athens at Marathon in 490 BCE, but were defeated
• Pheidippides ran 26 miles to Athens to tell of the victory but died of exhaustion
• The Persian force went away
• The second war began in 480 BCE when Darius’ son Xerxes attacked the Greek peninsula on the eastern coast with an international army
  • The attack at Thermopylae was stopped by 7000 Greeks led by 300 Spartans under Leonidas
  • Spartans held the mountain pass while the rest of forces retreated to defend Athens
  • Athenian leader Themistocles made people abandon the city and board warships for battle
  • Persians were outmaneuvered/defeated at Salamis in 480 BCE - The Greeks had ramming vessels powered by oarsmen called triremes, who became the model for Mediterranean navies
  • Persian land army was defeated by Spartans at Plataea in 479 BCE
  • Skirmishes continued until 449 BC

Consequences of the Persian Wars

• The Persians burned Athens while the Athenians were engaged in a naval battle at Salamis
• Athens became the leading city-state due to the prestige of the victory
  • It became leader of the new Delian League (ancient form of NATO) consisting of 140 Greek city-states - Domination occurred by way of the Athenian navy offering security in the Greek world - Exacted taxes from its members and grew wealthy - It unofficially became the Athenian empire while Sparta remained isolated
• Ushered in a golden age for Athens

The Golden Age of Athens (480 – 430 BCE)

• Also called the Age of Pericles (461 – 429 BCE) - The elected leader of Athens for 32 years with 3 goals - 1. strengthen the democracy - 2. build a commercial empire - 3. glorify Athens
• Salaries were paid to officials so officers could now work even if they were poor
• Athenian navy/Delian League treasury was used to strengthen Athens
• Public works projects beautified the city - The Parthenon was built (447 – 432 BCE) as a temple of Athena

Classical Art and the Parthenon

• The Temple was built by Phidias (architect and sculptor) during Pericles' reign
• It demonstrated values of balance, order, and proportion and showed human achievement and importance
• Sculpture idealized the human form/architecture sought proportional perfection with great visual appeal
• Sculpture was 360 degrees free standing and showed the Greek belief in humanity via tradition, gods, or nature confinement
• It contained a 39 foot statue of Athena using gold, marble, and ivory
• It used a serene face, graceful motion, and perfectly proportioned humans and cost 100 million in today’s dollars
• Pride was shown in Athens which defined model for Renaissance artists
• Characteristics of Greek columns include Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian styles - Doric = straighter - Ionic = curls at top - Corinthian = ornate
• Theatrical productions expressed civic pride/tribute to the gods - Drama was invented as plays were in competition with masks/chorus singers - Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides wrote tragedies featuring strong men and women whose strength led to their downfall and punishment from the gods - There was teaching important to the polis, power of leaders, justice, morality, war/peace issues, and duties to the gods/family/polis - Citizens had to attend as part of their education that wealthy citizens would back as their civic duty
• Life was measure by self-reflection and beauty/excellence in understanding and affecting life/world

Athenian Daily Life

• Marketplaces (agora) were dirty and loud
• One-third of the population were slaves who dressed like citizens
• The agora was dominated by males, while women veiled themselves and were rarely seen
• Women could not own/inherit land and had very few rights with no jury for their defense
• Dwellings were plainly furnished with few valued possessions and smelled of pigeons/animals
• Women were educated at home and lived separately without socializing together

The Peloponnesian War was a Conflict of Athens and Sparta

• Athens had a superior navy, while Sparta had a superior army - there was also the Peloponnesian League (including Corinth) VS the Delian League
• First open aggression act occurred in 457BC at the Battle of Tanagra
• Thucydides called it the Peloponnesian War - Sparta's series of threatening Athenian acts of aggression began in 431 BCE against small city-states in the Aegean region
• Athens suffered a naval defeat in Syracuse in Sicily in 416ВС during the attempt to annex the wealthy polis which was allied with Sparta - The plague began when Pericles withdrew Athenian forces inside the walls of Athens and faced the superior Spartan army - Around 1/3 of the population inside the walls died
• Sparta claimed victory in 404 ВСЕ - Athens had to tear down its Long Walls guarding entry from the sea - Those Long Walls had been built by Pericles City-state of Thebes (former Sparta ally/Peloponnesian War) rivaled/defeated Sparta in 371 BCE overthrowing them until Macedonian conquests in 30 years
• The war led to a Greek democratic breakdown where inefficient/corrupt leaders assumed control
• Tragedy and Comedy plays arose with Aristophanes for plays criticizing democratic policies

Socrates

• A philosopher rose up based and there was a search for wisdom/truth
• There was an assumption universe functioned logically via unchanging laws
• People used reason to understand laws
• Socrates (c. 470 – 399 BCE) - Socrates questioned via the Socratic Method
• Born in Golden Age of Athens/veteran of Athens' declined Peloponnesian War
• Demanded truth to examine the accepted Athenian views on democracy/patriotism/religion Accusations arose where it was said he corrupted the youth and suspicious that his influence grew
• Trial came and he was sentenced to die by drinking poison hemlock though he refused to be exiled
• He died 70 years old
• Plato was his student and found The Academy that lasted 900 years until closed in A.D. 529

Plato

• Was disciple of Socrates (c.428 – 348 BCE) and envisioned Greek society was not a democracy - Divided into 3 classes: farmers/artisans (largest), warriors, and ruling class of gifted minds
• Ruled by a philosopher-king to gain insight
• He dominated philosophy for 1500 years in his work, The Republic (385 – 380 BCE)

Aristotle

• Aristotle was Plato's student who studied for 20 years
• He studied botany, morals, mathematics, biology, geology, music, law, education, art, drama, language, rhetoric, and medicine
• Began school called The Lyceum and found the truth from other logical truths (syllogism) that developed rational/scientific thought
• Therefore, considered "father of science"

The Macedonian Greek Era

• Philip of Macedon/Philip II was affected
• Influenced by philosopher Isocrates' influence, Philip united Greek city-states/conquered Persia
• Liberated Greek Minor Asia (Ionia) as a militarized society taught phalanxes to use effective calvary
• In 338 BCE, Athens/Thebes joined and were defeated by Philip at Chaeronea and joined Corinth to invade Persia Guardsman name murdered Philip over family tension where his son, Alexander, succeeded

Alexander of Macedon

• King at 20
• Well-trained in leadership/Military/Horseman

Alexander's Conquests

• Alexander crossed the Dardanelles in 334 BCE with 30,000 troops/5,000 cavalry
• Alexander's Companion calvary defeated 40,000 Persians at Grecian River Battle in 334 BC
• Darius' soldiers assembled 100,000 soldiers that were defeated/killed at Battle of Issus in 333 BC
• Alexander refused peace and conquered Eqypt in 332 BCE establishing Alexandria that attacked Mesopotamia and beat 250,00 Persians using quick calvary/phalanxes
• Pursued Darius east where he was assassinated
• Then conquered Indus in 327 BCE before forces quit because of disillusionment/exhaustion by 323 BCE/7,000 miles/dead from fever

Hellenism Emerges

• After returning back, Alexander promoted to blend Persian cultures
• Alexander promoted his men to take brides/experience other nations
• His Empire was divided by generals such as Antigonas (Macedon)/Ptolemy (Egypt)/Seleucus (Asia Minor/Fertile Cres)
• Alexandria, Egypt became the multicultural trade center holding his body, stone Pharos lighthouse, galleries, zoos, observatories, The Great Library of 1/2 million scrolls from around the world
• Aristarchus found planet’s rotated earth, but Ptolmey view was accepted (world centered on mankind)
• The Elements was the compilation of geometry in the book from Euclid of 465 math codes
• Archimedes designed the lever/value Pi of the circumference while Heron found automatic water fountains/ doors
• Philon designed Doric columns/portico of the Hall of Mysteries
• Sculptures reached massive sizes such as Rhodes Colossus that was in harbor entrance and Nike Victory which was as good as Italian art
• Hellenism faded in 150 BCE

Hellenistic Kingdoms & Commagene

• Commengene in modern day Turkey was a prime Hellenistic example as Seleucus descended to Alexander and died
• Antiochus I ruled with Rome, but built Nemrut topmb with sculptures
• Zeus/Oromasdes (Ahura Mazda); Apollo/Mithras/Helios/Hermes;Heracles/Artagnes/Ares displayed writing/costumes of the area

Factors of Development in Ancient Greece

• Iron use allowed more citizens weapon access
• Small populations from lack of fertile soil/poor communication isolated communities
• Absence of holy group to determine action
• The Greeks emphasized freedom/intellect via individual ability and Arête