Ancient Greek Political Systems

Poleis System

• An essential Demos system is in Athenian democracy and encourages citizen participation, rather than aristocratic rule
• Debates occurred over which system was optimal
• Politeia, according to Aristotle, is the best system and is overseen by the vast majority of the middle class

Political Thought

• Political thought begins with Plato, and reaches its peak with Aristotle
• Aristotle discussed politics in a complex manner
• Debates surrounding politics were spurred by colonization and the variety of constitutions of Greek city-states

Plato

• Plato identified five regimes: Aristocracy, Timocracy, Oligarchy, Democracy, and Tyranny
• Aristocracy is the rule by a philosopher king
• An aristocracy which is wise and just degrades into four stages:
• Timocracy: less ambition and wisdom-seeking
• Oligarchy: wealth becomes the main value, leading to inequality
• Democracy: the masses overthrow the rich
• Tyranny: A leader seizes power through oppression
• Plato wrote "The Republic" to propose an ideal city-state ruled by philosophers
• Plato's ideal city-state comprises three classes of citizens: workers, guardians, and rulers
• His ideal city-state was criticized for its lack of freedom, autonomy and the unselfish results of a small group ruling
• Plato's Laws divided power among several executive offices
• A special board reviewed officials' performance

Aristotle

• Achieving a good constitution is a decisive factor
• Important considerations: Who rules, on behalf of whom, and the number of people involved
• Distinctions exist between who is ruling and who is being ruled for
• Aristotle identified:
• Monarchy, which can degrade into Tyranny
• Aristocracy, which can degrade into Oligarchy (like timocracy)
• Polity, where middle classes rule, which can degrade into Democracy (like a case of communism)

Aquinas

• Aquinas built on Aristotelian theory by emphasizing the need for the rule of law to prevent corruption
• The rule of law should be based on reason to acquire moral sense
• The goal is to live a good life as defined by the divine

Niccolò Machiavelli

• Machiavelli's "The Prince" (1513) provides an analysis of human nature based on observed behavior
• People are naturally selfish, short-sighted, fickle, and easily deceived
• Leadership qualities (Virtù) are essential
• Effective tactics include:
• The end justifies the means
• Cultivating a strong appearance
• Utilizing force and violence when necessary
• Benefiting people gradually
• Implementing military training
• Ensuring the well-being and security of the citizens

Montesquieu

• Advocated for the separation of the three political branches
• Recognized climate as an important factor
• Affirmed human rights and human dignity
• His work "L’Esprit des Lois" is a political theory and a history of jurisprudence
• Montesquieu explored how climate, religion, laws, and commerce influence legal systems and structures
• He identified three main types of government:
• Republic, based on virtue
• Monarchy, based on honor
• Despotism, based on fear

Almond and Sidney Verba's "The Civic Culture" (1963)

• Political culture is the synthesis of basic values, feelings, and knowledge underlying political processes

• Political culture consists of the beliefs, attitudes, and values shaping people's understanding of and engagement with politics and government and influences views on authority, democracy, participation, and the role of government

• Key aspects include cognitive knowledge, feelings about the political system, and global assessment

• There are types of political cultures like:

• Local/Parochial cultures have little to no input or information about the system

• Subject/Submissive cultures have minimal input, characterized by obedience and acceptance of government decisions in authoritarian societies

• Participative cultures have high input and active involvement, common in democratic societies

• Civic cultures: Stable democracies require a blend of all three cultures, creating a civic culture ensuring participation while maintaining order, an attribute of the nation since the 90s

• Having a well-constructed system does not guarantee its effectiveness; behavior and respect for the system matter

• A system's success relies on its association with the political culture of the nation

Easton Model (1965)

• Model focuses on the relation of inputs and outputs
• Inputs: Citizen involvement, demands, and support after socialization (integration with society through family, education, mates, and media without force)
• Outputs: Government actions and policies addressing citizen's needs
• The model highlights the relationship between individuals and government and resulting system stability
• System stability depends on how well the system processes inputs and adapts to demands
• Low input and demands make governance easier
• Authoritarian systems suppress inputs, while democratic systems rely on feedback loops
• Authoritarian regimes impose outputs with minimal citizen feedback
• Democratic systems shape outputs through public participation

Morlino's "Good & Bad Democracies"

• A "good democracy" depends on citizen participation, institutional effectiveness, and legitimacy
• Minimal criteria for a good democracy includes:
• Universal suffrage
• Free, fair, and competitive elections: regularly held and involving multiple parties
• Pluralism of political parties
• Free media
• Democratic institutions: free from elite or foreign influence
• A good democracy ensures civil and political rights and equality through the fair distribution of political, economic, and social rights
• The quality of democracy can be assessed via:
• Procedures: Evaluating how democracy functions, including law, participation, competition, and accountability
• Contents: The protection of fundamental values like freedom and equality
• Results: Evaluating the effectiveness of democracy in meeting citizens' needs through responsiveness and problem-solving
• Failure leads to defective or hybrid regimes

Hybrid Regimes ("Bad Democracies")

• Hybrid regimes fail to meet basic democratic criteria, often restricting civil rights, limiting elections, and undermining the rule of law
• They combine elements of democracy and authoritarianism
• Hybrid regimes maintain a democratic appearance while manipulating institutions to consolidate power

Defective Democracies ("Bad Democracies")

• Exclusive democracies limit political participation to certain groups
• Dominated democracies see elites controlling and manipulating politics
• Illiberal democracies hold elections but democratic principles, such as the rule of law, separation of powers, and civil liberties, are diminished
• Governments in these systems often suppress legal and institutional means to limit opposition, suppress media freedom, and control the judiciary
• They do not protect minority rights, free speech, or political competition, allowing leaders to erode democratic norms and maintain legitimacy at elections

Deficient Democracies ("Bad Democracies")

• Broadly describes democracies failing to meet key democratic standards
• Overlaps with defective democracies
• May showcase deeper structural issues
• Term used for East European regimes

Delegative Democracies ("Bad Democracies")

• Leaders are elected but govern with limited institutional oversight, concentrating power in the executive branch and weakening checks and balances
• Often exhibiting Populist traits
• Mostly found in Latino America

Dimensions of Democratic Quality

• Rule of Law:
• the rule of law should be applicable to everyone
• It requires a court and judicial system to be independent from politics
• It requires there to be no corruption in politics, law, and administration
• Threats can include corruption, organized crime, and judicial manipulation
• Accountability:
• Vertical accountability: Citizens keep leaders accountable through elections
• Horizontal accountability: Institutions (e.g., congress, court, media) check government power
• Requires media, opposition parties, and effective institutions
• Threats range from media control and party collusion to the absence of opposition
• Responsiveness:
• Responsive governments should listen to the needs, demands, and concerns of the people, addressing them through appropriate action and policies
• Involves implementing policies based on public demand, providing public services freely and addressing citizen concerns
• Threats range from ignoring public demands to making false promises and benefiting elites
• Freedom:
• Protect people's rights and freedoms
• This requires political rights, civil liberties, and legal protections
• Threats include surveillance, media control, and political opposition
• Equality:
• Ensuring equal rights, opportunities, and treatment under the law requires equal voting rights, protection against discrimination, and social policies (e.g., labor rights, education, healthcare)
• Threats range from economic inequality and discriminatory laws to weak social protection

Good vs. Bad Democracy

• Good democracies evaluate the dimensions of rule of law, accountability, responsiveness, freedom, and equality
• Effective democracy functions to balance power, protect rights, and ensure fairness in governance
• Strong rule of law and accountability relies on independent courts, fair trials, and anti-corruption policies
• Policies should reflect public needs through active listening to citizens and adjusting accordingly
• Free and fair elections require competition, allowing opposition parties and media to operate freely
• An active civil society and media empowers citizens to participate and influence policies without fear
• These qualities can be seen in Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Canada and Germany
• Low quality democracies are marked by corruption, inequality, and weak institutions
• Elites control the courts and police
• Elections take place, but media and opposition are controlled
• Widespread inequality and social exclusion exists
• Government decisions favor elites, neglecting public demands
• Examples include delegative democracies, populist democracies, and illiberal democracies

Democratic Systems: Presidentialism

• Presidentialism originated in America's 1787 constitution and remains a common form of government
• A democratic and republican system features a head of government leading an executive branch separate from the legislative
• Uncommon in Europe (except Iceland), it's mostly found in Latino American countries (excluding Ecuador)
• The executive does not derive from the legislative
• President is both head of state and head of government
• Praesidens, meaning Governor, is its strongest force
• Dictatorships provide no avenue for motions of confidence; the only way to remove a president is through invasion
• In the U.S., checks and balances include presidential veto power, Senate approval of treaties and nominations, congressional control of funds and declarations of war, and judicial review
• In the U.K., the main control is a vote of "no confidence" or rejecting key laws

Democratic Systems: Parliamentarianism

• Parliament can expel a prime minister with an alternative vote in a case of confidence
• Differences exist between republics and monarchies in the selection process of the executive head of state, whether selected by inheritance or by voting
• Executive can be elected by parliament (and by citizens in some cases)
• Often head of the army, and/or the head of foreign policies or the church (UK)
• Prime ministers must have parliamentary approval and explain their actions and future plans
• Parliaments typically choose the executive
• In the UK Westminster system, the government leaders are lawmakers
• The cabinet is the main committee within Parliament
• Usually, a majority party wins, forming a single-party cabinet
• The prime minister sits in the House of Commons
• Cabinet members must be lawmakers in either the Commons or the Lords
• Individuals from outside Parliament can join the cabinet, they must first become a member of Parliament

Semi-Presidentialism

• Features both parliamentary and presidential elements
• The president is the stronger figure as head of state
• Prime minister serves as head of government
• Seen in countries like France
• President is directly elected, while the prime minister is chosen through another process

Conventional Model: Switzerland

• The executive is the Federal Council
• The Federal Council consists of seven members chosen every four years by the Federal Assembly (Legislature)
• The President and Head of State are of the Confederation and is chosen every year by the Federal Council
• The process involves the rotation of the prime minister
• Decisions require approval from the council members
• Direct democracy and referendum are commonly used
• A part time job for politicians

Constitutional state and the rule of law (Rosenfeld)

• A fundamental necessity for legitimate constitutional government in a pluralistic society
• Differentiates constitutional democracies from authoritarian/totalitarian regimes
• The state is subject to citizenry when promulgating laws publicly
• The state's legislative functions must be separate from the adjudicative functions
• No one is above the polity
• The rule of law requires:
• Public and universal laws, everyone must be tied to this law
• Stability
• Understandable laws void of any ambiguity
• Strict and equal enforcement of the laws
• No area that is dominated by organized crime is permitted
• No corruption is permitted
• Bureaucracy
• Citizens must have unhindered access to the judiciary
• Three characteristics shape modern constitutionalism:
• Limit the powers of the government
• Ensure adherence to the rule of law
• Protect human rights
• In an abridged version, the rule of law requires all individuals to be subject to the law and obey it
• This necessitates generalized rules, predictability, separation of powers, and adherence to the principle that no one is above the law

Differences in Legal Systems

• Differences between systems are measured by security and predictability
• German system emphasizes adherence to the law, influenced by Kant.
• Ideal regimes are ruled by lawyers, with legislation validated by citizens regardless of its content
• British system relies on common law, where judges create laws and lawyers shape sentences (less predictable & secure)
• French system emphasizes the state as the guarantor of rights
• Rights are the most crucial aspect

Welfare State

• Form of government in which the state protects and promotes the social and economic well-being of the citizens, providing minimal provisions for a good life for its citizens
• Functions by collecting money and providing outcomes through taxes
• Can be universal or selective
• Developed after WW2 due to T.H. Marshall
• Combination of democracy, welfare, and capitalism

Models

• Social-democratic: based on universalism
• The stronger the welfare system, the stronger the state
• Christian-democratic: similar to the social-democratic model, but decentralized
• Local entities hold most of the power with a high degree of social stratification and insurance
• Liberal model: less universal and interferes to ameliorate poverty

The services can either be:

• The service may be universal: provided to everyone
• The service may be selective: provisions are for the ones that need help from the state

German Social Federal State

• Germany is a federal republic embodying democratic and social principles, as stated in Article 20 of its Basic Law
• Guarantees the principles of democracy, welfare state, and the rule of law
• Social policy constitutes a primary concern, accounting for the largest part of the federal budget and directly/indirectly impacting all citizens
• Provides ensured goods such as food and shelter, education, training, and information while also protecting against poverty
• Combines civil rights and freedoms with social rights
• An integral connection exists between democracy and social protection, underscoring the importance of social democracy

Concerns

• Welfare states prompt debates regarding their associated costs and whether social policies hinder economic growth
• Some argue that countries with substantial welfare systems rank among the richest democracies
• A key point of contention is whether it leads to public debt, or if there is evidence to disprove it
• Another point of contention is a "social policy as redistribution
• Expenditure includes social benefits and administration costs
• Social protection benefits are direct cash transfers through social protection schemes like social security funds, government units, social insurance, and other units administering privately funded schemes

Benefits are classified as

• Healthcare
• Disability benefits
• Old age benefits
• Survivor benefits
• Unemployment benefits
• Housing benefits
• Social exclusion benefits

Constitutional States: Authoritarian and Totalitarianism

• Totalitarianism is characterized by
• Unlimited state power with no grounds for protesting
• Control over public and private life
• Developed in 1920 by Italian fascists.
• A single dictator, censorship, single ruling party
• The people obey out of fear to secure cooperation
• The use of explicit or implied national ideology
• The absence of pluralism, prohibits criticism towards government, religious or political groups

Ideology

• Juche idea (referring always to YOU, as a person, not my problem its yours, self-reliance and independence) and Sogun / military first (militarize society and military nuclear power as a priority)

Party

• Workers party of Korea is the core political organ, three institutions to control the power
• The executive policy bureau
• The political bureau
• Control commission
• Authoritarianism:
• Control of public sphere, not much private, some freedoms allowed in the private sphere, as long it doesn't go against the party
• Soft ideology, surrounded by the idea that there are problems, and that the leader will resolve them
• Characteristics (Linz, 1964)
• Limited political freedoms
• A controlling regime justifies itself as a "necessary evil"
• Strict government-imposed constraints on social freedoms
• The presence of a vaguely defined ruling executive with vaguely defined and shifting powers
• Examples: Cuba, China, Venezuela, Russia, Belarus (last european dictatorship )

Illiberal Democracies

• Referred to as "Democracies without liberalism"
• Exhibits a hybrid regime, low-intensity democracy, and a partially democratic setup
• Not a fully open society but still a governing system
• The most common in Latino America
• It is both democratic and autocratic
• Even though some freedoms exists and the opposition is allowed, liberalism is not rejected, but it is not central
• Checks and balances do not work
• A term defined by Fareed Zakaria
• It is an electoral democracies where certain groups have no rights
• European Dialogue
• The European Union, its institutions and its citizens must be visibly at the service of EU citizens through: Social campaigns
• Every member of the EU must be held accountable by the other for EU Law

Turkey

• Economy is developing but freedoms are being controlled
• They link the idea of democracy with wealth when they vote for Tayyip Erdogan as the ir leader
• A failed coup d'état was an attempt to overthrow the state
• Erdogan then used it to eliminate opposition, and take over institutions and weaken democracy ultimately making it an illiberal democracy

Executive and Legislative Branches

• Government requires confidence in almost all European parliamentary systems.
• The confidence is expressed through a government vote for power
• Cabinet Government: The Prime Minister and Cabinet lead the government comprised of ministers drawn from parliament
• Both legislators and executives are responsible as ministers
• Separated in the United States
• Prime Minsters must rely on executive branch and must rely on their control
• France, Lithuania and Polan are Head of State
• Prime Minister must govern

There are 3 types of Political Systems in Europe

• Monarchies (King, Queen) no real power
• They are symbolic
• (Ex: Belgium, Netherlands, Denmark, Norway, Sweden and UK)
  • For example, in the UK the Prime Minister and Parliament are responsible for making the laws
• Republics (elected President) and President has limited power as head of state
• Countries are Austria, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Finland, France, Ireland, Lithuania, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Czech Republic
• Its President has significant power

Indirect presidents include (Neutral Figures)

• The leader is elected
• Germany, Italy, Greece and Estonia

The president has limited powers

• Appointing the prime minister
• Performing ceremonial duties for diplomacy
• Elections are meant for balance
• Prime Minister power is measured by the strong executive branch

Comparing Prime Ministers in Europe

• The UK Prime Minister is the stronger
• The Italian Prime Minister is fragmented
• The Dutch has limits

Coalition governments that rely on coalitions

• Minimum in (MWC) just have enough
• Involves for ideological for extra ideas

To measure

• Invest the votes
• Belgium and Italy
• Check Vote of measure
• Negative vote

Vote and Stay

• Sweden, Norway and Denmark

5. Minority Governments

• Part of parties which are under percent

Governments

• Unicameral one and the Croatia
• Bicomeral two chamber and Germany/ Italy

Upper houses

• Italy and Germany elected at 98 per cent/ 85%.
• Upper are appointed for life because amended and delayed
• Germany and Italy were balanced

It can impact negotiation with leaders of parties for allocation positions

• The Prime Minister can go to state level and has control committees

This results in more presidentialization

• Prime Minister is becoming media star
• More control for policy
• Approval required for parliament

UK is a Parliament system

• System has laws and status. It has Zealand/isreal laws
• Parlimalent evolve over a single
• Government supported

Power is used

• Monarch king/ queen
• It has houses and Lord's power
• It does that and can take the crown in Ireland

It is also social through diplomacy

• The parliament limited to five years
• It is what the law has and public opinion
• The crown is power
• Can send back to the speaker
• Parlaimony for a session can be dissolved
• In 14days

1. The House

• A main power adult suffers
• Houses and to come

Houses have had

• Has service/ is elected judges for supreme service Constituents power
• Limited election and is an MP for life
• Bondies can reviews

Voters

• The can serve in commons
• Govern

3 are formed in cabinet and approved has shadow has vote has policy

• Executive
• The government in the union