Ancient Greece, Persia, and Early Islamic History

• These study notes cover Ancient Greece, the Persian Empire, Ancient Rome, and early Islamic history.

Ionian Revolt

• Former Greek city-states initiated a revolt.
• These states sought support from Athens.
• Persia suppressed the revolt and demanded submission from Athens and Sparta.
• Persian diplomats were killed, leading to Persia preparing for war.

Persian Wars

• Persia launched a revenge attack for the support given to the Ionian Revolt.
• At the Battle of Marathon, the Greeks were outnumbered 2-1 but won.
• 6,000 Persians died, compared to 192 Greeks.
• This victory was a major shift in power for the Greek city-states.
• Darius died while Persia planned a larger attack.
• Pheidippides ran hundreds of miles to give news of the war.

Xerxes

• Xerxes succeeded Darius.
• He prepared an army of 250,000 to avenge his father, leading the largest army of that time.
• An alliance of Greek city-states, led by the Athenian navy and the Spartan army, formed.

Battle of Thermopylae

• King Leonidas of Sparta led the Greeks against Xerxes' massive Persian army.
• The Persians were victorious.

Battle of Salamis

• Pivotal point in the Greco-Persian Wars.
• Persia's naval power was crippled, forcing Xerxes to retreat.
• Greek morale was boosted, setting the stage for future victories.

Battle of Plataea

• Sparta, Athens, and others fought against the Persian army, which was commanded by Mardonius, Xerxes' general.
• This battle marked the end of the Persian invasion of Greece.
• The Greeks achieved a decisive victory, with Mardonius killed and the Persian army crushed.

Peace of Callias

• Marked the official end of the Persian Wars.
• Officially ended hostilities between Greece and Persia after years of conflict.

Peloponnesian War

• The Peloponnesian War was between Athens and Sparta.
• The Persian leader Artaxerxes II supported Sparta, contributing to a Spartan victory.
• All the Greek city-states were weakened, which made them vulnerable to future invasions by Macedonia.

King's Peace

• Persia regained control of Ionian city-states.
• Greek autonomy was recognized.

End of Persian Empire

• Artaxerxes III focused more on internal problems.
• Persia did not support Athens in its struggle against Macedonia.
• Macedonia successfully unified the Greeks against Persia; Persia came under Macedonian rule.
• The empire was destroyed by Alexander the Great.

Parthian Empire

• The death of Alexander and the split of his empire led to their rise.
• Persia became an important crossroad of the Silk Road.
• It collapsed without strong leadership and internal struggles.

Sasanian Empire

• Located in modern-day Turkey.
• Rose after the fall of Parthians.
• King Shapur took back Mesopotamia.
• Ruled with satrapies and granted religious toleration.

Ancient Greece: Minoa

• The Minoans were the first people to settle in Europe.
• They developed a sea empire based on trade.

Knossos Palace

• Relied upon the sea.
• The Palace of Knossos is a vast, ancient Minoan complex on Crete; known for its labyrinthine layout, frescoes, and association with the myth of the Minotaur.
• The Minoan civilization suffered a catastrophic collapse for unknown reasons.

Mycenae

• Language became ancient Greek.
• Indo-European warriors inhabited fortified cities with weapons, spears, and swords.

Agamemnon

• The legendary king of Mycenae and a central figure in Greek mythology; known for leading the Greeks in the Trojan War and his tragic fate upon returning home.
• They sacked Troy.
• Homer wrote the Iliad, telling the story of the Trojan War and its heroes like Hector and Achilles.
• Homer also wrote the Odyssey, telling the story of what happened after the Trojan War and its lessons

Arete

• A Greek concept encompassing religion, social status, and honor; it defines what it means to be a Greek man.
• Citizens had to be males over 18 and own property.

Polis, Acropolis, and Agora

• Polis: Center of politics, society, and religion.
• Acropolis: A place to mingle and conduct daily business.
• Agora: A place to sell goods/a marketplace.

Middle Ages

• Colonization occurred due to overpopulation and a lack of food/space.
• Greek ideals began to spread.
• New wealth was created as a result of trade.
• There was a military focus of society (ages 7-60).

Tyrants

• Served as bad people who did good things (ironically).
• Challenged old systems of government.
• Opened the door to democracy.
• Initiated public works projects like water systems, sewers, markets, and temples.

Hoplites

• Armed infantrymen.
• Utilized the Phalanx military formation.
• Discipline and strength were important for Hoplites.

Sparta

• Conquered Laconia and Messenia.

Helots

• Slaves of Spartans.

Lycurgus

• The legendary lawgiver of Sparta; credited with establishing its strict military-oriented society and legal system.

Athenian Governance

• Oligarchy with 2 kings.
• There were Five elected citizens known as Enhors.
• Council of Elders totaling 28.

Athens

• Citizens were enslaved if they couldn't pay debts.
• Solon eliminated debt slavery.
• Cleisthenes implemented a "Council of 500," where all had a say in government, establishing true democracy.

Classical Greece

• Included the writing of history.

Herodotus

• A historian who documented the Persian Wars, providing detailed accounts of the conflicts between Greece and Persia.

Thucydides

• Recorded the history of the Peloponnesian War.

Classical Greek Plays

• Dramas and tragedies written and performed.
• Aeschylus wrote Oresteia.
• Sophocles wrote Oedipus Rex.
• Euripides wrote Medea.

Classical Greek Architecture

• Historical sculptures and architecture were created.
• They focused on Ideal beauty, Columns; and the Parthenon.

Philosophy

• Love of wisdom

Socrates

• Socratic method
• Question everything

Plato

• A philosopher who analyzed the Persian Wars' impact on Greek society and governance, but he was not directly involved in the war.
• He wrote The Republic and founded the Academy, a philosophical school.

Aristotle

• A philosopher in politics, economics, nature, etc.
• He paved the way for the new scientific method.
• He founded The Lyceum and tutored Alexander the Great.

Religion

• Featured 12 chief Gods who were not moral beings.
• Gods lived on Mt. Olympus.
• Gods were worshipped through festivals and the Olympics.
• People sought advice at the Oracle at Delphi.

Macedonia

• Phillip II conquered most Greek city-states.
• Phillip II formed the Hellenic Alliance which:
• Coalition of Greek city-states, led by Sparta and Athens.
• formed to resist the Persian invasion.
• At the Battle of Chaeronea, Philip II and his son Alexander the Great defeated Athens and Thebes, securing Macedonian dominance over Greece. Phillip II was assassinated by Pausanias.

Alexander the Great

• At the Battle of Issus, Alexander defeated Darius III.
• Alexander passed through Palestine and Egypt, where he was perceived as a Pharaoh.
• He attempted to create a world empire in Babylon.
• He destroyed Persepolis in revenge for someone's death, then entered the Indus River Valley.
• He died at 32.

Hellenistic Age

• Spread Greek ideals and culture.
• Archimedes: Inventor of the lever and formula of pi.
• Euclid: Inventor of Geometry.
• Epicurus: Associated with pleasures of life.
• Zeno: Created the idea of Stoicism, teaching self-control, rational thinking, and resilience in the face of adversity, emphasizing virtue as the highest good.

Ancient Rome: Etruscans

• 1st Italians
• There was a monarchy with city-states.
• They built roads, markers, infrastructure, and drainage/sewer systems.
• The Etruscans were wealthy from trading with Greeks (iron, copper).
• They were known for architecture and the alphabet.
• Had a military influence in Rome.

Early Rome

• Rome had productive agricultural land due to volcanic ash.
• The city was built on 7 hills for defense and a connection to the divine.
• It was 12 miles up the Tiber River and hard to invade due to the river and hills.
• It had access to the sea and was centrally located in Italy and the Mediterranean.

Remus and Romulus

• Their mother was a vestal virgin.
• They were demigods, as Mars was their father.
• One brother killed the other (Remus was killed).

Early Roman Events

• In 340 BCE, Rome defeated the Etruscans and Latium.
• Rome granted citizenship.
• They expanded to the south and the Mediterranean with:
• Causes tension with Greeks.

Roman Republic

• Had 3 Branches of government:
• Consuls: 2 consuls with imperium power for 1 year; in charge of finances and judges; elected by the Senate.
• Senate: 300 members in charge of the army and foreign policy.
• Assembly: Made up of citizens legislations.
• Had a class system, which included:
• Imperium (power to rule)
• Patricians: High class, aristocracy and landowners.
• Plebeians: Middle class, small landowners, artisans, merchants, and farmers.
• Clientage: Lower class, protected by patrons in exchange for labor, military service, and political support.
• Slavery: War captives, not based on skin color. Some slaves were educated and could buy their way out of slavery.

Roman Law

• Twelve Tables: equality of classes and rulers.
• Earliest written code of Roman law created around 451-450 BCE.
• Established legal principles for Roman citizens, including property rights, legal procedures, and punishments.
• Civil Law: For citizens. Natural Law: Rational law for all people, including slaves and marriage/ kids.

Roman Army

• Divided into legions of 5,000 people.
• Legions subdivided into centuries, each with 80 soldiers.
• Centurions served as commanders.
• Politicians had to serve a minimum of 10 years in the military.

1st Punic War

• Started in Sicily with:
• Rome had a strong army/Carthage had a navy.
• Cartage was then defeated.
• Sicily became a Roman province with shifted power.

2nd Punic War

• Corsica and Sardinia were conquered by Rome.
• Hannibal
• Carthaginian general and military strategist.
• Best known for leading his army, including war elephants, across the Alps to attack Rome.

Battle of Cannae

• 80k Romans were killed in which Hannibal's Carthaginian army decisively defeated a much larger Roman force (Rome's worst military defeat)
• Scipio Africanus tooks a major gamble to end the war with the Battle of Zama and with the defeat of Carthage, Spain was lost.

3rd Punic War

• Carthage was destroyed with the earth being salted (biological warfare).
  • First people to use biological warfare
• Survivors were enslaved and the land was renamed Africa.

Consequences of the Punic Wars

• War is costly and causes social unrest.
• Farmers' land failed when away which was due to Hannibal's slash and burn tech.
• Plebians and landowners were forced to sell land. Latifundias: large estates in ancient Rome, primarily worked by slaves, that focused on producing cash crops for profit, contributing to economic inequality and the decline of small farmers.
• The rich became richer but the poor became poorer.

Solutions

• Free grain, allow the poor to join the military, create a professional standing army, and allow powerful generals lead civil wars.

First Triumvirate

• Power sharing alliance.
• FT Crassus was one of the wealthiest men and he was killed in a military battle:
  • Creation of a power vacuum.
• FT Pompey
• the Senate backed Pompey.
• He Fled after the Battle of Pharsalus and was killed in Egypt on orders of Ptolemy XIII.
• FT Julius Caesar:
• Caesar refused to step down and crosses the Rubicon.
• Known as enemy of state and had a relationship with Cleopatra
• Elected Dictator and was assassinated in the Senate
• Granted land reforms and citizenship reforms.

Battle of Pharsalus

• Julius defeated Pompey.

Civil War

• Cassius and Brutus fought against Mark Antony and Octavian.
• Battle of Phillipi: Cassius and Brutus were defeated as they both committed suicide.

Second Triumvirate

• Antony, Octavian, Lepidus made up this new power group.
• A civil war occurred between Octavian and Antony
• This included Mark Anthony x Cleopatra.

Battle of Actium

• Cleo and Antony were defeated by Octavian.
• Cleo and Antony then commit suicide.

Princeps

• Octavian's new title: “First citizen/imperator”, and he his ceremonial name was Augustus.
• "Revered one" symbolizes shift from the Republic to the Empire.

Augustus' Actions

• Created stable empire rules that lasted for 40 years.
• Added Egypt, Germany, Spain, and the Balkans.
• Expanded citizenship and implemented government reforms which led to efficiency.
• Cut down on corruption and set up police and fire departments.

Roman Empire

• Infamous Rulers
• Extreme Decadence Caligula (raised by Tiberius,they are terrible people)
• Nero

Pax Romana

• Roman Peace during a 5 good emporer period.
• Signified by Stability, Prosperity, Roads, and Aqueducts.

Roman Literature

• Virgil : A story of Aeneas, duty honor faithfulness

Roman Architecture

• Arch, Domes, Vaults, Amphitheaters with the Invention of Concrete

Late Empire Crisis

• 22 emperors in 49 years which was accompanied by high taxes and inflation
• The Empire was overextended and there were invasions by everyone, which accompanied a moral decline.

Diocletian and Constantine

• They reformed the late empire crisis
• granted religious freedoms.
• Enlarged the bureaucracy and tax base with the creation of Constantinople
• Capitol of the Byzantine Empire, known for its strategic location and rich history, before becoming Istanbul.

Roman Religion

• Polytheistic with religious toleration
• This included eastern mystery cults as well as conquering Judaea.

Christianity

• Jesus of Nazareth
• A first-century Jewish teacher and religious leader who is the central figure of Christianity. Believed by Christians to be the Son of God and the Messiah.
• Paul of Tarsus: (hated christians, then key early Christian missionary and theologian who spread Christianity across the Roman Empire)

Edict of Milan

• People were being able to freely practice their religion, christianity.

Theodosius

• Official religion of Rome.

Council of Nicaea

• Choosing what stories would go into the Bible with the Gnostic Bible's stories were cut out of the bible.

Pre-Islam Arabia

• Bedouin Tribes comprised nomadic people.
• They were people who did not live in one place and made money by Caravan trade routes.
• Sheiks: tribal leaders who tended to be the most strongest/charismatic.
• Majlis: Tribal council, elders, sometimes former sheiks.
• Mecca: A wealthy trade center

Belief

• As people come to the city of Mecca, they were bringing all kinds of religious ideas of Polytheism(numerous idols to Gods):
• Allah
• Main all powerful god)
• Kaaba.
• Holiest cite of Israel)(house of god, allah)(becomes tourist location)

Muhammad

• Came from Quraysh Tribe who were the wealthiest people of Mecca, and they controlled the Kaaba
• Became an orphan at age 6 then was raised by his uncle Abu Talib
• Abu Talib was a Head of Quraysh Tribe, and raised Muhammed
• Also known as a Wealthy powerful man
• He was a Reputeable business man, that was an honest caravan manager, owner of business and becomes community leader

Kadija

• Owned caravan business and was wealthy, powerful
• Hired Mohammed, developed a friendship and ultimately:
• Mohammed married Kadija and had six children (only 4 daughters survive)

Muhammed

• Troubled by decadence and commercialism at the Cave of Hira:
• A small cave near Mecca where Prophet Muhammad received his first revelation from Angel Jibril (Gabriel)which marked the beginning of Islam.

Angel Gabriel

• Divine messenger who delivers Gods’ revelations to prophets

Allah's Revelations

• Monotheism meaning one god
  • Allah is all powerful and merciful with key traits being Onesty, Faithfullness, Charity, Final Judgement

Islam

• Submission to God through the Quran (holy text) which contains the Hadith.

5 Pillars

• Duties of Islam
• Faith/Shahadah
• Prayer/Salah
• Fasting/Sawm
• Almsgiving/Zakah
• Pilgrimage/Hajj

Hijrah

• The migration of Prophet Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Medina.
• Muhammed was seen as a threat because he called out multiply bad practices which led to Persecution and strife during the Year of Sorrow when:
• Kadija and Abu(his uncle) passed away due to starvation
• Muhammed had to flee due to assassinations
• Him and his followers go to Medina and:
• Muhammed was welcomed and invited to Medina. - This resulted in the creation of the the Umma, which was the first Islamic community at the:
  • Quba (1st mosque, created by Umma)
  • Constitution of Medina - This led Muhammed to Become a politician in Medina (established by Prophet Muhammad in Medina to create peace and unity among Muslims, Jews, and other tribes, outlining rights, responsibilities)

Conflicts

• Three battles (Mecca vs Muslims)
• Treaty freeing people of tribal alliances
• Muhammed promises not to return to the city for 1 year during which He:
• Declares Kaaba sacred site and:
• Removes all idols of these Gods and:
• Grants pardons and religious toleration which resulted in Religious freedom.

Abu Bakr

• Muhammed marries his daughter, she was the first convert outside of his own family.
• Was companion on the Hijrah and was the 1st Caliph (“Successor of the messenger of God”) after Muhammed's death, as well as being creating the Islamic Empire in the Caliphate (land of Caliphs) which practiced
• Jihad (struggle, internal spiritual effort to live righteously)
• Lower Taxes (jizya) based on religion, toleration and economic benefits

Umar

• Early hatred of Muhammed, involved in assassination
• Second Caliph
• Muhammed marries his daughter, led to Conquering Syria, Jerusalem, and Persia
• He was eventually Assassinated by Persian soldier.

Uthman

• 3rd Caliph by being
• Married to 2 of Muhammed's daughters
• Sets family up as dynasty
• Creates resentment and enemies
• Assassinated

Ali

• Son of Abu Talib:
• 4th Caliph
• Only person born in Kaaba, as well as being
• Married to Muhammed's youngest daughter
• Assassinated by Abd al-Rahman ibn Muljam which led to:
• Fitnah (Islamic civil war)

Muawiya

• Created the 5th Caliph
• Created the of Umayyads(Family dynasty)

Hussein

• Muhammed's grandson, he
• Rises up against Umayyads during which the:
• Battle of Karbala - led to Sunni and Shia

Sunni

• Belived people would hurt themselves to mimic his pain)
• follows the teachings of Prophet Muhammad and his companions, emphasizing the consensus of the Muslim community in leadership.

Shia

• Believed the that caliph leadership should have stayed within Prophet Muhammad's family

Umayyad Dynasty

• Sunni based dynasty
• Expands across North Africa and Enter Spain & France
  • Battle of Tours (unsuccessful Muslim expansion into Europe)

Arab Domination

• Arab domination leads to resentment against Arabs because the Arabs usually filled all important government positions.

Abbasid Dynasty

• Shia -Overthrows corrupt Umayyads try to bring Sunni & Shia together so that government offices are open to all Muslims where Everyone has a chance to succeed by electing Al-Ma'mun as the Capital of Baghdad - Al-Ma'munCaliph
• Caliph Al-Ma'mun (r. 813-833 CE) was an Abbasid ruler known for promoting science, philosophy, and the Mihna (Islamic inquisition) while fostering the House of Wisdom in Baghdad.)
• Patron of learning (Greco-Roman classics also broke through Algebra, architecture, astronomy, literature)
• There was also Ibn Sina (Canon of Medicine (Medical encyclopedia) advances like cataract surgery, the use of forceps & syringes, and cesarian section)

Seljuk Turks

• Ottoman empire
• Captured Baghdad Sultan (holder of power)
• Sultan took over Bagdad (replaces the word Caliph for Turks)
• Battle of Manzikert (takes over Anatolia)
• Had control over the Middle East until end of WWI.