Ancient Civilizations Overview

Location: Between Tigris and Euphrates Rivers (modern-day Iraq).
Key City-States: Ur, Babylon, Sumer.
Contributions:
- Writing System: Cuneiform.
- Legal Code: Code of Hammurabi.
- Innovations: Wheel, plow, irrigation systems.

Location: Northeastern Africa, along the Nile River.
Key Periods:
- Old Kingdom: Era of pyramid building (e.g., Great Pyramid of Giza).
- Middle Kingdom: Cultural flourishing and stability.
- New Kingdom: Expansion and powerful pharaohs (e.g., Ramses II).
Contributions:
- Hieroglyphics as a writing system.
- Advances in medicine and mathematics.

Location: Northwestern India and Pakistan (Indus River).
Key Cities: Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro.
Contributions:
- Urban planning with grid layouts.
- Advanced drainage systems.
- Trade network with Mesopotamia.

Dynasties:
- Shang: Early writing and bronze working.
- Zhou: Mandate of Heaven concept, feudalism.
- Qin: Centralized government, Great Wall construction.
Contributions:
- Inventions: Paper, gunpowder, compass.
- Philosophies: Confucianism, Daoism.

Key Periods:
- Archaic: Development of city-states (polis).
- Classical: Flourishing of arts, philosophy (e.g., Socrates, Plato).
- Hellenistic: Expansion under Alexander the Great.
Contributions:
- Democracy in Athens.
- Advances in science and philosophy.
- Olympic Games.

Key Periods:
- Roman Kingdom: Foundation and early kings.
- Roman Republic: Senate and elected officials.
- Roman Empire: Expansion and Pax Romana.
Contributions:
- Engineering: Roads, aqueducts, arches.
- Law: Twelve Tables, legal principles influencing modern law.
- Language: Latin, the basis for Romance languages.

Key Civilizations:
- Olmecs: Early civilization known for colossal heads.
- Maya: Advanced writing (hieroglyphs), calendar systems, architecture (pyramids).
- Aztecs: Centralized empire, human sacrifices, extensive trade networks.
Contributions:
- Agriculture: Chinampas (floating gardens), maize cultivation.
- Astronomy: Sophisticated understanding of celestial movements.

Key Civilizations:
- Nubia: Trade with Egypt, rich gold resources.
- Kingdom of Axum: Early Christian kingdom, trade routes.
- Mali Empire: Wealth from gold, notable rulers like Mansa Musa.
Contributions:
- Trade networks connecting sub-Saharan Africa with Mediterranean.
- Rich oral traditions and storytelling.

Key Civilizations:
- Vedic period: Foundation of Hinduism, social structures (varna system).
- Maurya Empire: Unification of India under Ashoka, promotion of Buddhism.
- Gupta Empire: Golden Age of arts and sciences.
Contributions:
- Mathematics: Concept of zero, advancements in algebra.
- Literature: Sanskrit literary works, epics like Mahabharata and Ramayana.

Situated in Northeastern Africa, primarily along the Nile River.
The Old Kingdom is recognized for monumental pyramid construction, such as the Great Pyramid of Giza.
The Middle Kingdom marked a period of cultural flourishing and societal stability.
The New Kingdom saw the expansion of Egypt and the reign of powerful pharaohs, including Ramses II.
Hieroglyphics served as a distinctive writing system.
Notable advancements in medicine and mathematics were also achieved.

Significant dynasties include:
- Shang: Innovations in early writing and bronze working.
- Zhou: Introduced the Mandate of Heaven and feudal structures.
- Qin: Established a centralized government; construction of the Great Wall.
Major inventions included paper, gunpowder, and the compass.
Philosophical contributions included Confucianism and Daoism.

Key periods:
- Archaic: Emergence of city-states (polis).
- Classical: Height of arts and philosophy with figures like Socrates and Plato.
- Hellenistic: Expansion of Greek influence through Alexander the Great's conquests.
Athens pioneered the concept of democracy.
Contributed advancements in science, philosophy, and initiated the Olympic Games.

Significant periods:
- Roman Kingdom: Foundation and governance by early kings.
- Roman Republic: Prominence of the Senate and elected officials.
- Roman Empire: Expansion marked by the era of Pax Romana (Roman Peace).
Engineering innovations included roads, aqueducts, and arches.
Established legal principles through the Twelve Tables, which continue to influence modern law.
Latin became the foundational language for Romance languages.

Major civilizations:
- Olmecs: Known for monumental colossal heads.
- Maya: Developed advanced writing systems (hieroglyphs), calendar systems, and architectural pyramids.
- Aztecs: Established a centralized empire marked by human sacrifices and extensive trade networks.
Agricultural achievements included chinampas (floating gardens) and maize cultivation.
Advanced understanding of astronomy and celestial movements.

Key civilizations:
- Nubia: Engaged in trade with Egypt and known for its rich gold resources.
- Kingdom of Axum: Early Christian kingdom with crucial trade routes.
- Mali Empire: Wealth derived from gold, led by notable rulers like Mansa Musa.
Established trade networks connecting sub-Saharan Africa with the Mediterranean.
Rich oral traditions and storytelling practices flourished.

Key civilizations:
- Vedic period: Formation of Hinduism and development of the social varna system.
- Maurya Empire: Unified India under Emperor Ashoka, promoting Buddhism.
- Gupta Empire: Recognized as a Golden Age for arts and sciences.
Major contributions to mathematics included the concept of zero and developments in algebra.
Significant literary achievements in Sanskrit, including the epic texts Mahabharata and Ramayana.