Ancient Civilizations: Mesopotamia and Egypt

Located in eastern Asia
Xia Dynasty (2100-1600 BCE) is the earliest known Chinese dynasty
Shang Dynasty (1600-1046 BCE) developed writing, bronze technology, and a feudal system
Zhou Dynasty (1046-256 BCE) saw the development of Confucianism and the concept of the Mandate of Heaven

Located in central Italy
Developed from a kingdom to a republic to an empire
Notable achievements: law, architecture, engineering, and governance
Expanded its territories through conquest, eventually covering much of Europe, North Africa, and parts of Asia
Notable figures: Julius Caesar, Augustus, Cicero, and Nero

Located in modern-day Iraq, Kuwait, and parts of Syria, Turkey, and Iran, and known as the "cradle of civilization"
Major cities: Ur, Uruk, Nippur, Babylon, and Nineveh, which were significant centers of learning and governance
Developed writing (cuneiform) around 3500 BCE, which enabled record-keeping and storytelling
Governance: developed city-states and kingdoms, with rulers like Sargon the Great who united Mesopotamia
Agriculture: invented the wheel (around 3500 BCE) and sailboat, which revolutionized transportation and trade
Made significant advances in bronze metallurgy, enabling the creation of tools and weapons

Located in northeastern Africa, along the Nile River, and lasted from around 3100 BCE to 30 BCE
Developed hieroglyphic writing around 3050 BCE, which was used for both practical and artistic purposes
Constructed pyramids, like the Great Pyramid of Giza, as tombs for pharaohs and symbols of power
Practiced mummification to preserve bodies and ensure eternal life
Notable pharaohs: Khufu, who built the Great Pyramid; Hatshepsut, one of the few female pharaohs; Thutmose III, who expanded Egypt's empire; Akhenaten, who introduced monotheism; and Ramses II, who fought the Hittites
Made significant advances in medicine, mathematics, and architecture, including the development of papyrus and surgical instruments

Located in modern-day Pakistan and northwestern India, and flourished between 3300 and 1300 BCE
Notable cities: Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, which were planned cities with advanced sewage systems and architecture
Developed urban planning, with cities built around a central square and featuring sophisticated drainage systems
Writing system has not been deciphered, but over 4,000 seals have been found with written symbols
Made significant advances in metallurgy, with the use of copper, bronze, and tin

Located in eastern Asia, and the Xia Dynasty (2100-1600 BCE) is the earliest known Chinese dynasty
Shang Dynasty (1600-1046 BCE) developed writing, bronze technology, and a feudal system
Writing: developed oracle bones and bronze inscriptions to record history and mythology
Zhou Dynasty (1046-256 BCE) saw the development of Confucianism and the concept of the Mandate of Heaven, which emphasized the emperor's divine right to rule
Made significant advances in philosophy, with the teachings of Confucius and other philosophers

Located in southeastern Europe, and consisted of city-states: Athens, Sparta, Corinth, and Thebes
Developed democracy in Athens, with the concept of citizenship and participation in government
Theater: developed tragedy and comedy, with playwrights like Sophocles and Aristophanes
Philosophy: developed rationalism and empiricism, with philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle
Notable figures: Alexander the Great, who conquered a vast portion of the known world; and Homer, who wrote the epic poems the Iliad and the Odyssey

Located in central Italy, and developed from a kingdom to a republic to an empire
Notable achievements: law, architecture, engineering, and governance
Law: developed the Twelve Tables, which formed the basis of Roman and modern law
Architecture: developed the arch, dome, and columns, and built structures like the Colosseum and Pantheon
Engineering: built roads, bridges, and aqueducts, and developed the alphabet and calendar
Expanded its territories through conquest, eventually covering much of Europe, North Africa, and parts of Asia
Notable figures: Julius Caesar, who transformed Rome from a republic to an empire; Augustus, who established the Principate; Cicero, who was a prominent statesman and orator; and Nero, who was infamous for his extravagance and tyranny