Anatomy of the Foot: Tarsal Bones

Bones of the Foot

• The foot is composed of three parts: tarsal bones, metatarsal bones, and phalanges.

Tarsal Bones (Tarsus, Ankle Bones)

• There are seven ankle bones, classified as short bones.
• These bones are organized into two rows: the proximal row and the distal row.
• The seven tarsal bones include: calcaneus, talus, navicular, cuboid, and three cuneiform bones.
• They provide a stable platform within the foot.

Additional Facts

• The largest sesamoid bone is the patella, located in front of the knee joint.

Ways to Become a Successful Student in Anatomy

• Believing in one's own success
• Determining one's working method
• Studying regularly for classes
• Preparing and attending theoretical and practical lessons in advance
• Taking advantage of different sources
• Solving question examples
• Making time for medical English

Anatomy Study Methods at Altınbas University

• Theoretical lessons
• Practical lessons
• Models
• Slides
• Anatomical models
• Cadaver applications
• Inspection
• Palpation

History of Anatomy

• Anatomical pictures found in ancient cave paintings
• First dissections performed on dead animals
• Anatomical information passed down through papyri in Egypt
• Valuation of the liver in Mesopotamia
• Anatomy as a basic education in medicine in India
• Edwin Smith papyrus (1600 B.C.): written records of anatomy
• Hippocrates (469-399 B.C.): Father of Medicine
• Aristotle (384-322 B.C.): first to use the term "anatomy"
• Herophilus (335-280 B.C.): first anatomist
• Galen (129-201 A.D.): studied animal anatomy to learn human anatomy
• Ibn-i Sina (980-1037): wrote book on anatomy and medicine
• Ibn Nefis (1210-1288): described circulation in humans
• Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519): made visual contributions to anatomy
• Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564): established modern anatomy
• Gabriele Falloppio (1523-1562): discovered fallopian tubes
• Hieronymous Fabricius (1537-1619): named valves in veins
• William Harvey (1578-1657): discovered human circulatory system
• Henry Gray (1827-1861): English anatomist and surgeon
• Johannes Sobotta (1869-1945): German anatomist
• Frank H. Netter (1906-1991): American medical doctor and illustrator
• Marcello Malpighi (1628-1694): pioneered microscopic anatomy
• Karl Ernst von Baer (1792-1876): focused on human organ development

Principles of Participation in Anatomy Laboratory

• Participation in practical lessons in assigned groups
• Attendance recording at the end of each session
• Students must arrive on time and stay for the entire session
• Students must wear white coats and bring all educational materials
• Damage to models is not allowed

What is Anatomy?

• Branch of science that studies the normal structure of the human body
• Includes cells, tissues, organs, and systems
• Subfields: gross anatomy, microscopic anatomy, clinical anatomy, neuro anatomy, radiological anatomy, functional anatomy, and developmental anatomy

Anatomy Terminology

• Branch of science that deals with terms
• Uses Latin and Greek terminology
• Learning anatomical terminology is essential for progressing in anatomy
• Anatomical language is a fundamental medical terminology
• Terminologia Anatomica (TA) is the international standard for anatomy terminology

Anatomical Position

• Standard reference position of the body
• Used to describe the location of structures
• Body is upright, with feet together, hands by the side, and face forward
• Mouth is closed, and facial expression is neutral

Anatomical Planes

• Imaginary flat surfaces that traverse the body
• Median plane: divides the body into equal right and left halves
• Sagittal plane: parallel to the median plane
• Frontal (coronal) plane: vertical plane that divides the body into anterior and posterior sections
• Horizontal (transverse) plane: horizontal plane that divides the body into superior and inferior sections

Terms to Describe Location

• Anterior (front) and posterior (back)
• Medial (towards the median) and lateral (away from the median)
• Superior (towards the head) and inferior (towards the feet)
• Proximal (closer to the trunk) and distal (away from the trunk)
• Cranial (towards the head) and caudal (towards the tail)

Anatomical Terms of Movements

• Flexion: decreasing the angle between two structures
• Extension: increasing the angle between two structures
• Abduction: moving away from the midline
• Adduction: moving towards the midline
• Protrusion: moving forward
• Retraction: moving backward
• Depression: moving downward
• Elevation: moving upward
• Medial (internal) rotation: spiral movement towards the midline### Anatomical Terms of Movements
• Lateral (external) rotation: Spiral movement away from the midline
• Inversion: The plantar side of the foot is rotated in the direction of the median plane
• Eversion: The foot is rotated away from the median plane on the plantar side
• Protraction: Moving forwards and laterally simultaneously
• Retrusion: Moving backward (movement of tongue and mandible)
• Flexion (trunk): Side (lateral flexion) or forward (anterior flexion) bending
• Extension (trunk): Bending backward
• Pronation: The radius is rotated medially, causing the palm to face posteriorly (if in anatomical position) or inferiorly (if the elbow is bent)
• Supination: Lateral rotation of the radius, resulting in the palm facing anteriorly (if the elbow is in an anatomical position) or superiorly (if the elbow is flexed)
• Circumduction: A coordinated movement that begins with flexion and progresses through abduction, extension, and adduction
• Deviation: The wrist joint can move in either direction (radial deviation or ulnar deviation)
• Opposition: Using the thumb of the same hand to touch the pad of any of the fingers
• Reposition: Separating any of the fingers' pads from the thumb of the same hand
• Rotation (trunk): Twisting motion towards or away from the midline (left or right)

Surface Landmarks

• Surface landmarks are distinct structures that can be felt or seen directly and remain consistent across individuals
• Examples of surface landmarks:
  • Clavicle
  • Jugular notch
  • Manubrium of sternum
  • Sternal angle (2nd costal cartilage)
  • Body of sternum
  • Xiphoid process of sternum
  • Nipple (4th intercostal space)
  • Ribs of the pectoral region
• Surface landmarks can be identified in areas such as the abdomen or thorax, including foramina for neurovascular bundles, suture intersections, and bony structures

Anatomical Regions

• All anatomical regions are identified by accurate landmarks, resulting in universally accepted terms
• Regions of the Head and Neck:
  • Frontal
  • Orbital
  • Infraorbital
  • Nasal
  • Oral
  • Mental
  • Sternocleidomastoid
  • Lateral cervical
  • Posterocervical
  • Buccal
  • Parotideomasseteric
  • Infratemporal
  • Zygomatic
  • Temporal
  • Occipital
  • Parietal
• Regions of the Lower Extremity:
  • Hip
  • Gluteal
  • Thigh
  • Knee
  • Leg
  • Ankle
  • Foot
  • Femoral triangle
  • Gluteal
  • Femoral (anterior, posterior)
  • Genicular (anterior, posterior)
  • Popliteal
  • Crural (anterior, posterior)
  • Lateral retromalleolar
  • Dorsal
  • Plantar
  • Calcaneal

Anatomical Lines

• Anatomical lines are imaginary lines drawn vertically or horizontally across an upright
• Examples of anatomical lines:
  • Line of symmetry
  • Sternal line
  • Parasternal line
  • Midclavicular line
  • Anterior/middle and posterior axillary lines
  • Paravertebral line
  • Scapular line
  • Ribs
  • Sternum
  • Vertebral spine processes
  • Clavicle
  • Pectoral muscles
• Anatomical lines provide reference points for locating and describing specific regions on the surface of the body

Cavities of the Body

• Most anatomical structures are found within cavities, which are fluid-filled areas
• Membranes and other structures divide these bodily cavities, providing protection, lubrication, and reducing friction during organ movement
• Each cavity contains unique neurovascular structures and organs specific to its location
• Examples of cavities:
  • Ventral or anterior cavity (including the thorax, abdomen, and pelvis)
  • Dorsal or posterior cavity (including the cranial and spinal cavities)
  • Thoracic cavity
  • Abdominopelvic cavity
  • Cranial cavity
  • Vertebral cavity

Osteology

• Characteristics of bone:
  • Living tissue
  • Supports the body's skeleton
  • Complex, rigid, inflexible, hard, vascular, and dynamic connective tissue
  • Composed of cells and intercellular matrix substances
• Types of bone cells:
  • Osteoblasts
  • Osteocytes
  • Osteoclasts
• Bone growth occurs through surface accretions, also known as appositional growth
• Bone function:
  • Providing the skeletal frame and body architecture
  • Preventing the collapse of the body
  • Protecting internal organs from impact-related injuries
  • Facilitating the movement of body parts
  • Supporting blood formation and the generation of red and white blood cells
  • Participating in the buildup and release of substances and minerals

Bone Ossification

• There are two varieties of bone ossification:
  • Intramembranous ossification
  • Endochondral or intracartilaginous ossification
• Intramembranous ossification:
  • Directly replaces the membrane with bone without intervening cartilage stages
  • Found in the skull vault and several facial bones
• Endochondral ossification:
  • Occurs in the long and short bones of the skeleton
  • A model of the bone is first laid down in hyaline cartilage derived from connective tissues in the embryo

Skeletal System

• Divided into two groups:
  • Axial skeleton (80 bones)
  • Appendicular skeleton (126 bones)
• Axial skeleton:
  • Cranium (29 bones)
  • Vertebral column and thorax (51 bones)
• Appendicular skeleton:
  • Upper extremity bones (64 bones)
  • Lower extremity bones (62 bones)

Bones' Types and Classification

• There are two types of bone:
  • Compact bone
  • Spongy (trabecular or cancellous) bone
• Classification of bones based on anatomical shape:
  • Long bones
  • Short bones
  • Flat bones
  • Irregular bones
  • Sesamoid bones### Scapulae
• Triangular bone located at the 2nd to 7th levels of the ribs
• Connects the clavicle to the humerus
• Has two faces: costal (anterior) and posterior surfaces
• Features three borders: superior, medial, and lateral borders
• Has three angles: superior, inferior, and lateral angles

Posterior Surface of Scapula

• Convex and features a protrusion called the spine of scapula
• Spine of scapula divides into two concave surfaces: supraspinous fossa and infraspinous fossa
• Supraspinous fossa filled by the supraspinatus muscle and infraspinous fossa filled by the infraspinatus muscle
• Deltoid and trapezius muscles attach to the spine of the scapula

Borders of Scapula

• Superior border: shortest and thinnest, with a slight concave shape
• Lateral border: strong and thick, situated closest to the axilla
• Medial border: long, medial edge of the scapula closest to the vertebral column

Angles of Scapula

• Superior angle: formed by the junction of the superior and medial borders
• Inferior angle: formed by the junction of the medial and lateral borders
• Lateral angle: formed by the junction of the superior and lateral borders, contains the head and neck of the scapula

Glenoid Cavity

• Shallow pit on the lateral margin of the scapula's head, forms the glenohumeral joint with the head of the humerus
• Above the glenoid cavity: a small ridge called the supraglenoid tubercle, where the long head of the biceps brachii muscle attaches
• Below the glenoid cavity: a roughened area known as the infraglenoid tubercle, where the long head of the triceps brachii muscle attaches

Acromion and Coracoid Process

• Acromion: broad, straight lateral extension of the spine of scapula, articulates with the clavicle at the acromioclavicular joint
• Coracoid process: thick, beak-like structure that projects anterolaterally from the lateral end of the scapula

Humerus

• Longest bone in the upper limb, located in the arm (brachium)
• Divided into three main regions: proximal extremity, body, and distal extremity

Proximal Extremity of Humerus

• Consists of several structures, including the head, anatomical neck, greater and lesser tubercles, surgical neck, and the upper half of the body
• Head of humerus: rounded and articulates with the glenoid cavity
• Lesser tubercle: small, jagged ridge below the head, situated at the anterior proximal end of the humerus, and medial to the greater tubercle

Body of Humerus

• Also known as the body of the humerus, is the middle portion of the bone
• Features deltoid tuberosity, a rough area on the lateral side of the body where the deltoid attaches

Distal Extremity of Humerus

• Known as the condyle, located on the lateral side of the distal end of the humerus
• Spherical capitulum: articulates with the head of the radius
• Trochlea: roller-shaped, articulates with the ulna
• Medial and lateral epicondyles: knob-like prominences on the distal, medial and lateral sides of the humerus

Clinical Correlation

• Fractures of the humerus: can lead to direct injury or compression of the axillary nerve, radial nerve, and median and ulnar nerves
• Medial epicondyle fracture: can result in ulnar nerve injuries
• Lateral epicondyle fracture: can result in radial nerve injuries

Radius

• Bone located on the lateral side of the forearm (antebrachium)
• Responsible for pronation and supination movements
• Articulates with the humerus, radius, scaphoid, and lunate bones
• Upper end of the radius: the proximal extremity, is the thickest and strongest part
• Head of the radius: articulates proximally with both the humeral capitulum and the radial notch of the ulna at the elbow joint

Ulna

• Bone located on the medial side of the forearm (antebrachium)
• Articulates with the radius and humerus
• Does not have direct contact with the wrist bones; instead, there is a disc between them
• Upper end of the ulna: the proximal extremity, is the thickest and strongest part
• Olecranon: elbow protrusion, forms the uppermost part of the ulna, and can be easily palpated

Bones of the Hand

• The hand skeleton consists of 27 bones and can be divided into three groups: carpal bones (8), metacarpals (5), and phalanges (14)
• Carpal bones: eight small bones that form the wrist
• Metacarpals: five bones in each hand, each with a head, body, and base from proximal to distal
• Phalanges: 14 bones in each hand, with two in the thumb and three in the other fingers

Ways to Become a Successful Student in Anatomy

• Believing in one's own success
• Determining one's working method
• Studying regularly for classes
• Preparing and attending theoretical and practical lessons in advance
• Taking advantage of different sources
• Solving question examples
• Making time for medical English

Anatomy Study Methods at Altınbas University

• Theoretical lessons
• Practical lessons
• Models
• Slides
• Anatomical models
• Cadaver applications
• Inspection
• Palpation

History of Anatomy

• Anatomical pictures found in ancient cave paintings
• First dissections performed on dead animals
• Anatomical information passed down through papyri in Egypt
• Valuation of the liver in Mesopotamia
• Anatomy as a basic education in medicine in India
• Edwin Smith papyrus (1600 B.C.): written records of anatomy
• Hippocrates (469-399 B.C.): Father of Medicine
• Aristotle (384-322 B.C.): first to use the term "anatomy"
• Herophilus (335-280 B.C.): first anatomist
• Galen (129-201 A.D.): studied animal anatomy to learn human anatomy
• Ibn-i Sina (980-1037): wrote book on anatomy and medicine
• Ibn Nefis (1210-1288): described circulation in humans
• Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519): made visual contributions to anatomy
• Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564): established modern anatomy
• Gabriele Falloppio (1523-1562): discovered fallopian tubes
• Hieronymous Fabricius (1537-1619): named valves in veins
• William Harvey (1578-1657): discovered human circulatory system
• Henry Gray (1827-1861): English anatomist and surgeon
• Johannes Sobotta (1869-1945): German anatomist
• Frank H. Netter (1906-1991): American medical doctor and illustrator
• Marcello Malpighi (1628-1694): pioneered microscopic anatomy
• Karl Ernst von Baer (1792-1876): focused on human organ development

Principles of Participation in Anatomy Laboratory

• Participation in practical lessons in assigned groups
• Attendance recording at the end of each session
• Students must arrive on time and stay for the entire session
• Students must wear white coats and bring all educational materials
• Damage to models is not allowed

What is Anatomy?

• Branch of science that studies the normal structure of the human body
• Includes cells, tissues, organs, and systems
• Subfields: gross anatomy, microscopic anatomy, clinical anatomy, neuro anatomy, radiological anatomy, functional anatomy, and developmental anatomy

Anatomy Terminology

• Branch of science that deals with terms
• Uses Latin and Greek terminology
• Learning anatomical terminology is essential for progressing in anatomy
• Anatomical language is a fundamental medical terminology
• Terminologia Anatomica (TA) is the international standard for anatomy terminology

Anatomical Position

• Standard reference position of the body
• Used to describe the location of structures
• Body is upright, with feet together, hands by the side, and face forward
• Mouth is closed, and facial expression is neutral

Anatomical Planes

• Imaginary flat surfaces that traverse the body
• Median plane: divides the body into equal right and left halves
• Sagittal plane: parallel to the median plane
• Frontal (coronal) plane: vertical plane that divides the body into anterior and posterior sections
• Horizontal (transverse) plane: horizontal plane that divides the body into superior and inferior sections

Terms to Describe Location

• Anterior (front) and posterior (back)
• Medial (towards the median) and lateral (away from the median)
• Superior (towards the head) and inferior (towards the feet)
• Proximal (closer to the trunk) and distal (away from the trunk)
• Cranial (towards the head) and caudal (towards the tail)

Anatomical Terms of Movements

• Flexion: decreasing the angle between two structures
• Extension: increasing the angle between two structures
• Abduction: moving away from the midline
• Adduction: moving towards the midline
• Protrusion: moving forward
• Retraction: moving backward
• Depression: moving downward
• Elevation: moving upward
• Medial (internal) rotation: spiral movement towards the midline### Anatomical Terms of Movements
• Lateral (external) rotation: Spiral movement away from the midline
• Inversion: The plantar side of the foot is rotated in the direction of the median plane
• Eversion: The foot is rotated away from the median plane on the plantar side
• Protraction: Moving forwards and laterally simultaneously
• Retrusion: Moving backward (movement of tongue and mandible)
• Flexion (trunk): Side (lateral flexion) or forward (anterior flexion) bending
• Extension (trunk): Bending backward
• Pronation: The radius is rotated medially, causing the palm to face posteriorly (if in anatomical position) or inferiorly (if the elbow is bent)
• Supination: Lateral rotation of the radius, resulting in the palm facing anteriorly (if the elbow is in an anatomical position) or superiorly (if the elbow is flexed)
• Circumduction: A coordinated movement that begins with flexion and progresses through abduction, extension, and adduction
• Deviation: The wrist joint can move in either direction (radial deviation or ulnar deviation)
• Opposition: Using the thumb of the same hand to touch the pad of any of the fingers
• Reposition: Separating any of the fingers' pads from the thumb of the same hand
• Rotation (trunk): Twisting motion towards or away from the midline (left or right)

Surface Landmarks

• Surface landmarks are distinct structures that can be felt or seen directly and remain consistent across individuals
• Examples of surface landmarks:
  • Clavicle
  • Jugular notch
  • Manubrium of sternum
  • Sternal angle (2nd costal cartilage)
  • Body of sternum
  • Xiphoid process of sternum
  • Nipple (4th intercostal space)
  • Ribs of the pectoral region
• Surface landmarks can be identified in areas such as the abdomen or thorax, including foramina for neurovascular bundles, suture intersections, and bony structures

Anatomical Regions

• All anatomical regions are identified by accurate landmarks, resulting in universally accepted terms
• Regions of the Head and Neck:
  • Frontal
  • Orbital
  • Infraorbital
  • Nasal
  • Oral
  • Mental
  • Sternocleidomastoid
  • Lateral cervical
  • Posterocervical
  • Buccal
  • Parotideomasseteric
  • Infratemporal
  • Zygomatic
  • Temporal
  • Occipital
  • Parietal
• Regions of the Lower Extremity:
  • Hip
  • Gluteal
  • Thigh
  • Knee
  • Leg
  • Ankle
  • Foot
  • Femoral triangle
  • Gluteal
  • Femoral (anterior, posterior)
  • Genicular (anterior, posterior)
  • Popliteal
  • Crural (anterior, posterior)
  • Lateral retromalleolar
  • Dorsal
  • Plantar
  • Calcaneal

Anatomical Lines

• Anatomical lines are imaginary lines drawn vertically or horizontally across an upright
• Examples of anatomical lines:
  • Line of symmetry
  • Sternal line
  • Parasternal line
  • Midclavicular line
  • Anterior/middle and posterior axillary lines
  • Paravertebral line
  • Scapular line
  • Ribs
  • Sternum
  • Vertebral spine processes
  • Clavicle
  • Pectoral muscles
• Anatomical lines provide reference points for locating and describing specific regions on the surface of the body

Cavities of the Body

• Most anatomical structures are found within cavities, which are fluid-filled areas
• Membranes and other structures divide these bodily cavities, providing protection, lubrication, and reducing friction during organ movement
• Each cavity contains unique neurovascular structures and organs specific to its location
• Examples of cavities:
  • Ventral or anterior cavity (including the thorax, abdomen, and pelvis)
  • Dorsal or posterior cavity (including the cranial and spinal cavities)
  • Thoracic cavity
  • Abdominopelvic cavity
  • Cranial cavity
  • Vertebral cavity

Osteology

• Characteristics of bone:
  • Living tissue
  • Supports the body's skeleton
  • Complex, rigid, inflexible, hard, vascular, and dynamic connective tissue
  • Composed of cells and intercellular matrix substances
• Types of bone cells:
  • Osteoblasts
  • Osteocytes
  • Osteoclasts
• Bone growth occurs through surface accretions, also known as appositional growth
• Bone function:
  • Providing the skeletal frame and body architecture
  • Preventing the collapse of the body
  • Protecting internal organs from impact-related injuries
  • Facilitating the movement of body parts
  • Supporting blood formation and the generation of red and white blood cells
  • Participating in the buildup and release of substances and minerals

Bone Ossification

• There are two varieties of bone ossification:
  • Intramembranous ossification
  • Endochondral or intracartilaginous ossification
• Intramembranous ossification:
  • Directly replaces the membrane with bone without intervening cartilage stages
  • Found in the skull vault and several facial bones
• Endochondral ossification:
  • Occurs in the long and short bones of the skeleton
  • A model of the bone is first laid down in hyaline cartilage derived from connective tissues in the embryo

Skeletal System

• Divided into two groups:
  • Axial skeleton (80 bones)
  • Appendicular skeleton (126 bones)
• Axial skeleton:
  • Cranium (29 bones)
  • Vertebral column and thorax (51 bones)
• Appendicular skeleton:
  • Upper extremity bones (64 bones)
  • Lower extremity bones (62 bones)

Bones' Types and Classification

• There are two types of bone:
  • Compact bone
  • Spongy (trabecular or cancellous) bone
• Classification of bones based on anatomical shape:
  • Long bones
  • Short bones
  • Flat bones
  • Irregular bones
  • Sesamoid bones### Scapulae
• Triangular bone located at the 2nd to 7th levels of the ribs
• Connects the clavicle to the humerus
• Has two faces: costal (anterior) and posterior surfaces
• Features three borders: superior, medial, and lateral borders
• Has three angles: superior, inferior, and lateral angles

Posterior Surface of Scapula

• Convex and features a protrusion called the spine of scapula
• Spine of scapula divides into two concave surfaces: supraspinous fossa and infraspinous fossa
• Supraspinous fossa filled by the supraspinatus muscle and infraspinous fossa filled by the infraspinatus muscle
• Deltoid and trapezius muscles attach to the spine of the scapula

Borders of Scapula

• Superior border: shortest and thinnest, with a slight concave shape
• Lateral border: strong and thick, situated closest to the axilla
• Medial border: long, medial edge of the scapula closest to the vertebral column

Angles of Scapula

• Superior angle: formed by the junction of the superior and medial borders
• Inferior angle: formed by the junction of the medial and lateral borders
• Lateral angle: formed by the junction of the superior and lateral borders, contains the head and neck of the scapula

Glenoid Cavity

• Shallow pit on the lateral margin of the scapula's head, forms the glenohumeral joint with the head of the humerus
• Above the glenoid cavity: a small ridge called the supraglenoid tubercle, where the long head of the biceps brachii muscle attaches
• Below the glenoid cavity: a roughened area known as the infraglenoid tubercle, where the long head of the triceps brachii muscle attaches

Acromion and Coracoid Process

• Acromion: broad, straight lateral extension of the spine of scapula, articulates with the clavicle at the acromioclavicular joint
• Coracoid process: thick, beak-like structure that projects anterolaterally from the lateral end of the scapula

Humerus

• Longest bone in the upper limb, located in the arm (brachium)
• Divided into three main regions: proximal extremity, body, and distal extremity

Proximal Extremity of Humerus

• Consists of several structures, including the head, anatomical neck, greater and lesser tubercles, surgical neck, and the upper half of the body
• Head of humerus: rounded and articulates with the glenoid cavity
• Lesser tubercle: small, jagged ridge below the head, situated at the anterior proximal end of the humerus, and medial to the greater tubercle

Body of Humerus

• Also known as the body of the humerus, is the middle portion of the bone
• Features deltoid tuberosity, a rough area on the lateral side of the body where the deltoid attaches

Distal Extremity of Humerus

• Known as the condyle, located on the lateral side of the distal end of the humerus
• Spherical capitulum: articulates with the head of the radius
• Trochlea: roller-shaped, articulates with the ulna
• Medial and lateral epicondyles: knob-like prominences on the distal, medial and lateral sides of the humerus

Clinical Correlation

• Fractures of the humerus: can lead to direct injury or compression of the axillary nerve, radial nerve, and median and ulnar nerves
• Medial epicondyle fracture: can result in ulnar nerve injuries
• Lateral epicondyle fracture: can result in radial nerve injuries

Radius

• Bone located on the lateral side of the forearm (antebrachium)
• Responsible for pronation and supination movements
• Articulates with the humerus, radius, scaphoid, and lunate bones
• Upper end of the radius: the proximal extremity, is the thickest and strongest part
• Head of the radius: articulates proximally with both the humeral capitulum and the radial notch of the ulna at the elbow joint

Ulna

• Bone located on the medial side of the forearm (antebrachium)
• Articulates with the radius and humerus
• Does not have direct contact with the wrist bones; instead, there is a disc between them
• Upper end of the ulna: the proximal extremity, is the thickest and strongest part
• Olecranon: elbow protrusion, forms the uppermost part of the ulna, and can be easily palpated

Bones of the Hand

• The hand skeleton consists of 27 bones and can be divided into three groups: carpal bones (8), metacarpals (5), and phalanges (14)
• Carpal bones: eight small bones that form the wrist
• Metacarpals: five bones in each hand, each with a head, body, and base from proximal to distal
• Phalanges: 14 bones in each hand, with two in the thumb and three in the other fingers