Questions and Answers
Which of the following paranasal sinuses are present in the horse? (Select all that apply)
What is the purpose of the os rostrale in pigs?
It provides attachment to the levator labii superioris muscle.
The largest paranasal sinus in horses is the ______.
sphenopalatine
The maxillary sinus of the ox is divided by an oblique septum.
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Match the following foramina with their functions:
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What causes the characteristic prominence of the withers in saddle horses?
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What condition can arise from exostoses in saddle horses?
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What is the primary use of the lumbosacral space in animals?
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Which domestic animal has fused sacral vertebrae?
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The two parts of the rib are the bony (dorsal) part and the __________ part.
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How many rib pairs do horses typically have?
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What is the term for the first rib which has a strong and short structure?
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Dogs have more sternal ribs than pigs.
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What is the maximum number of carpal bones generally found in dogs?
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What is the maximum number of metacarpal bones in a horse?
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Which digit classification is unique to the horse?
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What is the caudal opening of the pelvic cavity called?
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What is the largest part of the os coxae?
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In ruminants, digits 3 and 4 are the chief digits, while digits 2 and 5 are called __________.
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All domestic mammals have the same number of phalanges in each digit.
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Which species has a concave pubic floor and a larger pelvic outlet?
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The pelvic inlet is typically larger than the pelvic outlet in cows.
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What is the largest bone in the skeleton?
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The ______________ (largest sesamoid bone) developed within the tendon of insertion of quadriceps femoris.
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Which domestic animal has a triangular pelvic outlet?
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What feature distinguishes the pelvic cavity in horses compared to cows?
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Match the following species to their corresponding patella shape:
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In dogs, the greater trochanter is significantly elevated compared to the femoral head.
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What is the medial ridge in the femoral trochlea of horses?
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The malleolar bone in ruminants forms an interlocking joint with the ______________.
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What are the two relatively large bones in the proximal tier of the tarsal bones?
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What angle is typically observed in a well-formed hock joint?
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Which of the following are divisions of systematic anatomy? (Select all that apply)
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What is the definition of comparative anatomy?
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The median plane divides the body into equal left and right halves.
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The function of the heart and blood vessels is studied under _____ anatomy.
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What does the term 'dorsal' refer to in anatomy?
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Which term refers to the surface of the hindlimb distal to the tarsus?
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What are paired organs in the context of zygomorphism?
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The _____ system is characterized by structures arranged in segmentation.
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Analogous organs have the same origin but different functions.
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Which of the following is NOT a classification of bone shape?
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What are sesamoid bones?
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In the vertebral column, the lumbar region typically has _____ vertebrae in most domestic animals.
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How many cervical vertebrae does a horse have?
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The axis is the first cervical vertebra.
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Which animal has a bifid spinous process on its axis?
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Study Notes
Comparative Veterinary Macroscopic Anatomy
Introduction to Comparative Anatomy
- Definition: description and comparison of animal structures, basis for their classification
- Considerations:
- Non-uniform structure and architecture among animals
- General plan of organization in each major group of organisms
- Variations in details of the general plan characteristic of species
- Constitutional plan possible to differentiate one individual from another
- Systematic approach to study anatomy: body regarded as systems of organs or apparatus with similar origin, structure, and function
Divisions of Systematic Anatomy
- Osteology: description of bones and cartilages (support and protection of soft structures)
- Syndesmology/Arthrology: description of joints (rigid segments of bones)
- Myology: description of muscles and accessory structures (putting bones and joints into motion)
- Splanchnology: description of viscera (digestive, respiratory, urogenital apparatus, peritoneum, and ductless glands)
- Angiology: description of organs of circulation (heart, arteries, veins, lymphatics, and spleen)
- Neurology: description of nervous system (control and coordination of organs and structures)
- Sense organs: description of eyes and ears (relating individual to environment)
- Common integuments: description of skin and associated structures (temperature regulation and protection of inner structures)
Directional Terms and Planes
- Cranial: direction toward the head
- Caudal: direction toward the tail
- Rostral and caudal: terms for direction within the head (toward the nose or tail)
- Median plane: passes through the body craniocaudally, dividing it into equal right and left halves
- Sagittal plane: any plane parallel to the median plane
- Transverse plane: at right angles to the median plane, dividing the body into cranial and caudal parts
- Frontal plane: at right angles to both median and transverse planes, dividing the body into dorsal and ventral segments
- Dorsal: pertains to the back or upper surface of the animal
- Ventral: pertains to the undersurface of the animal
- Medial: relates to the middle or center, nearer to the median or midsagittal plane
- Lateral: opposite to medial, away from the median plane
- Superficial: pertains to the surface or a structure situated near the surface
- Deep (Profundus): refers to a structure situated at a deeper level in relation to a specific reference point
- Proximal: nearest the center of the body or point of origin
- Distal: relatively further from the center of the body
- Palmar and plantar: caudal surface of the forelimb and hindlimb, respectively
- Prone: position with dorsal aspect of the body or extremity uppermost
- Supine: position with ventral aspect of the body or extremity uppermost
Anatomical Variations
- Principle of Zygomorphism: animal can be divided into right and left halves or antimeres
- Paired or homotypical organs (superficial and deep)
- Unpaired organs (unilateral or single median structure)
- Principle of Metamerism: serial (segmental) homology, organs or structures arranged according to linear, longitudinal series
- Principle of Tubulation: presence of dorsal tube (neural tube) and ventral tube (gut) in vertebrates
- Principle of Stratification: arrangement of organs and their parts in layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm)### Osteon Bone and Logos Study (Study of Bones)
- Bones or Osseous tissue: hard, semi-rigid, calcified connective tissue forming the skeleton.
- Skeleton: framework of hard structures that supports and protects soft tissues of animals.
Classification of Bones (according to shape)
- Long bones: elongated cylindrical form with enlarged extremities (e.g., limb bones).
- Short bones: similar dimensions in length, breadth, and thickness (e.g., carpus and tarsus).
- Flat bones: large area for muscular attachments and protection of organs (e.g., scapula, some skull bones, os coxae, and ribs).
- Irregular bones: varied functions; support and ligamentous attachment (e.g., vertebrae, base of skull, and certain facial bones).
Specialized Varieties of Bones
- Sesamoid bones: found within tendons to prevent injury and increase leverage exerted by muscles (e.g., patella, fabellae, and navicular bone).
- Splanchnic bones: develop in soft organs, remote from the rest of the skeleton.
- Pneumatic bones: in the skull, containing paranasal sinuses that communicate with nasal cavities.
Chemical and Physical Properties of Bone
- Composition in 100 parts of ox bone of average quality:
- Gelatin: 33.30
- Phosphate of lime: 57.35
- Carbonate of lime: 3.85
- Phosphate of magnesia: 2.05
- Carbonate and chloride of sodium: 3.45
- Color: yellowish-white in fresh state, white when macerated or boiled and bleached.
- Specific gravity (S.G.) of fresh compact bone: 1.9, very hard and resistant to pressure.
Vertebral Column/Spine
- Consists of separate bones called vertebrae, extending from the skull to the tip of the tail.
- Five regions:
- Cervical (C)
- Thoracic (T)
- Lumbar (L)
- Sacral (S)
- Caudal/Coccygeal (Cy/Cd)
Comparative Vertebral Formula of Domestic Animals
- Dog: C7, T13, L7, S3, Cy20-23
- Ox: C7, T13, L6, S5, Cy18-20
- Horse: C7, T18, L6, S5, Cy15-21
- Pig: C7, T14-15, L6-7, S4, Cy20-23
- Goat: C7, T13, L7, S5, Cy16-18
- Sheep: C7, T13, L6-7, S4, Cy16-18
- Chicken: C14, T7, L14, no sacral or caudal vertebrae
Typical Vertebra
- Body: broadly cylindrical, flattened cranially and convex caudally.
- Arch: pedicles and laminae, forming a bony enclosure of the vertebral foramen.
- Processes:
- Spine: single, projects dorsally from the middle of the arch.
- Transverse: two, project laterally from the sides of the arch and body.
- Articular: two cranial and two caudal.
- Mamillary: found on caudal thoracic and cranial lumbar vertebrae in most mammals.
Cervical Vertebrae (Neck)
- Massive and rectangular, longer than other regions.
- Atlas and axis (atypical) and remaining five (typical).
Thoracic Vertebrae (Back)
- Long spinous process, shortened, flattened bodies; costal facets; short transverse process, closely fitting arches, and low articular process.
Lumbar Vertebrae (Loin)
- Greater length and more uniform shape of bodies, lack costal facet; long, flattened transverse process, interlocking articular process, and prominent mamillary process.
Sacral Vertebrae (Croup)
- Fused together (sacrum).
Caudal/Coccygeal Vertebrae (Tail)
- Varies greatly, even within a single species.
Ribs
- Elongated, curved bones forming the skeleton of the lateral thoracic walls.
- Each rib consists of:
- Bony (dorsal) part: the rib proper.
- Cartilaginous (ventral) part: the costal cartilage.
- Ribs classified as:
- Sternal (true ribs): articulates directly with the sternum.
- Asternal (false ribs): articulates indirectly with the sternum.
- Floating: no connection with the sternum.
Sternum
- Median segmental bone with three parts:
- Manubrium: cranial part, projecting in front of the first ribs.
- Body: composed of several segments (sternebrae) joined by cartilages.
- Xiphoid cartilage: caudal part, projecting between the lower parts of the costal arches.
The Appendicular Skeleton
- Shoulder region: scapula, coracoid, and clavicle.
- Arm, upper arm (brachium): humerus.
- Forearm (antebrachium): radius and ulna.
- Hand (manus): carpal bones, metacarpal bones, and phalanges.
- Pelvis: os coxae (hip bone), ilium, pubis, and ischium.
- Thigh (femur): femur.
- Leg (crus): tibia and fibula.
- Foot (pes): tarsal bones, metatarsal bones, and phalanges.
Bones of the Forelimb
- Scapula (shoulder blade): the only remaining bone in the pectoral girdle of most domesticated animals.### Scapula
- Absent in dogs, well-developed in pigs and horses, poorly developed in cats and ox
- Acromion (hamate process) present in all species except pigs and horses
- Suprahamate process present only in cats
Humerus
- Largest bone of the thoracic limb
- Obliquely positioned against the ventral part of the thorax
- Landmarks:
- Greater (lateral) tubercle: divided into cranial and caudal parts in horses and cattle, larger than the lesser tubercle in dogs, equal in horses
- Lesser (medial) tubercle: divided into cranial and caudal parts in horses and cattle
- Intertubercular groove (bicipital groove): single in dogs and pigs, divided by a low sagittal ridge in ruminants, and a well-developed ridge (intermediate tubercle) in horses
- Supratrochlear foramen: present in dogs, absent in pigs, horses, ox, and horse
- Supracondylar foramen: present only in cats, allows passage of median nerve and brachial artery
- Lateral tuberosity: massive and overhangs bicipital groove in ox and sheep, converts bicipital groove into a foramen in pigs
- Humeral condyle: engages with radius and has a trochlear form in large animals, divided into medial area (trochlea) for ulna and lateral area (capitulum) for radius in dogs and cats, has three fossae in cats
Radius and Ulna
- Two bones forming the skeleton of the forearm
- Landmarks:
- Radius: simple rod-like bone, stronger than ulna in ungulates, less dominant in carnivores
- Ulna: long, thin bone, serving mainly for muscle attachment and formation of the elbow joint
- Fusion of the two bones: complete in ruminants and horses, connected by fibrous tissue in pigs, separate in carnivores
- Antebrachial interosseous space: long and narrow in dogs, pig, and chicken, reduced to two short spaces in ruminants, and one space in horses
- Proximal extremity of the radius: more circular in carnivores, transversely widened in others
- Neck of the radius: distinct only in carnivores
- Distal extremity of the radius: concave in its cranial part and convex in its caudal part in ungulates, slightly concave ovoid form in carnivores
- Size of ulna: larger than radius in pigs and chicken, extremely slender in sheep
Carpals
- Two transverse rows of bones
- Landmarks:
- Proximal row: radial, intermediate, ulnar, and accessory bones
- Distal row: numbered one to five, although the fifth is never separate but is either suppressed or fused with the fourth
Metacarpals
- Five metacarpal bones for each digit
- Landmarks:
- Domestic species: 1) dog (5), 2) horse (3), 3) ox, sheep (3), 4) pig (4)
Digits
- Typically five in number, designated numerically from the radial to the ulnar side
- Landmarks:
- Domestic species: 1) dog (5), 2) horse (1), 3) ox, sheep (4), 4) pig (4)
- Phalanges: three in each digit, except the first in dogs, which has only two
- Dewclaw (paradigit): the first digit and the first metacarpal bone, not bearing weight
- Nail or claw: present in dogs, hoof in horses, ox, and pig
Pelvic Girdle
- Ilium:
- Cranial part: divisible into two parts - wing and shaft
- Landmarks:
- Shape and orientation of the wings: oblong with more or less sagittal orientation in dogs and cats, triangular and almost vertical in horses and ruminants
- Tuber sacrale: dorsally in smaller species, dorsomedially in larger species
- Tuber coxae: ventrally in smaller species, ventrolaterally in larger species
- Iliac crest/cranial border: thickened and convex in carnivores and pig, thin (sharp) and concave in horse and ruminants
- Gluteal surface: faces dorsally in horse and ox, laterally in pig and dog
- Arcuate line: carries the psoas tubercle midway along its length, except in dogs
- Pubis:
- Cranioventral part of the os coxae, essentially L-shaped
- Body: lateral end of the cranial branch, contributes to the acetabulum
- Cranial ramus: extends from the body to the medial plane, meets its fellow of the opposite side to form the pubis symphysis
- Caudal ramus: passes caudally from the medial portion of the cranial ramus
- Ischium:
- Forms the most caudal part of the hip bone
- Landmarks:
- Ischial spine: marked by the origin of the gluteus profundus, relatively low in dogs, particularly high in ruminants
- Ischiatic tuberosity: a roughened swelling at the caudolateral corner of the plate, a horizontal thickening in dogs, and a conspicuously triangular swelling in cattle
- Tuber ischiadicum: a thickened ridge in horse and dog, a caudally directed process with a lateral tubercle in the pig, and a trituberculate process in the ox
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Description
This quiz covers questions about the anatomy of paranasal sinuses in different animals, including horses, pigs, and oxen. It includes questions about the presence and purpose of specific sinuses and features.
